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UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 
AT  LOS  ANGELES 


U^m^RSITY  of  CALB?ORMii^. 
AT 

LOS  ANGEUES     -^ 
LIBRARY 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2008  with  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive.org/details/fundamentalreadiOObusw 


I 


SUPPLEMENTARY  EDUCATIONAL  MONOGRAPHS 

Published  in  conjunction  with 
THE  SCHOOL  REVIEW  and  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL  JOURNAL 

No.  21  June  1922 


FUNDAMENTAL  READING 
HABITS:  A  STUDY  OF 
THEIR   DEVELOPMENT 


^ri  "THew^i  BRANGm, 


SlRSiTY  OF  nALIFORNIA, 

\UJB  ^  .  CALIF. 


421    1  * 


FUNDAMENTAL  READING 
HABITS:  A  STUDY  OF 
THEIR   DEVELOPMENT 


By 
GUY  THOMAS  BUSWELL 

ASSISTANT  PROFESSOR  OF  EDUCATIONAL  PSYCHOLOGY 
THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CHICAGO 


THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CHICAGO 

CHICAGO.  ILLINOIS 


f?04-^ 


Copyright  1922  By 
The  Untversity  of  Chicago 


All  Rights  Reserved 


Published  June  1922 


\ 


4736 


Cc^.l 


ACKNOWLEDCxMENT 

The  investigation  reported  in  this  monograph  was  made  possible  by 
an  appropriation  from  the  Commonwealth  Fund.  This  subsidy  pro- 
vided for  elaborate  modifications  of  the  eye-movement  photographic 
apparatus  which  has  been  used  in  the  laboratory  of  the  School  of  Edu- 
cation of  the  University  of  Chicago,  as  well  as  the  construction  of  new 
devices  for  the  experimental  study  of  the  reading  process.  The  subsidy 
also  made  possible  the  employment  of  a  sufl&cient  number  of  technical 
and  clerical  assistants  to  undertake  a  more  extensive  analysis  of  eye- 
movement  records  than  had  previously  been  attempted  and  to  study  a 
far  greater  number  of  subjects. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

List  of  Figures       . ix 

List  of  Plates xi 

List  of  Tables xiii 

CHAPTER 

I.  Fundamentals  in  Reading i 

IL  Growth  Stages  of  Certain  Elements  of  Reading      .       .       .  n 

Growth  in  Silent  Reading 25 

Growth  in  Oral  Reading 36 

Eye-Movement  Elements  and  Achievement  in  Oral  Reading    .        .  44 

Eye-Movement  Elements  and  Comprehension  in  Silent  Reading     .  50 

Comparison  of  Growth  Curves  for  Three  Elements  of  Silent  Reading  55 

III.  Detailed  Analysis  of  First-Grade  Reading 58 

Contrasts  in  Methods  of  Teaching 63 

^.Development  of  a  Correct  Reading  Attitude 64 

Initiation  of  Eye-Movement  Habits 73 

Development  of  Independence  in  Word-Recognition  ....  86 

Word-calling  versus  Rhythmic  Expression  in  Thought  Units    .        .  92 

IV.  Individual  Variations  and  Specific  Training  in  Reading.       .  106 

Analysis  of  Elementary-School  Cases no 

Analysis  of  High-School  and  College  Cases 130 

Specific  Training  Exercises 138 

Summary 147 

Index 149 


LIST  OF  FIGURES 

FIGURES  PAGE 

1.  Growth  Stages  for  Average  Number  of  Fixations  per  Line  in  Silent 
Reading 27 

2.  Growth  Stages  for  Average  Duration  of  Fixation  Pauses  in  Silent 
Reading 32 

3.  Growth  Stages  for  Average  Number  of  Regressive  Movements  per 
Line  in  Silent  Reading        .        .        . 35 

4.  Growth  Stages  for  Average  Number  of  Fixations  per  Line  in  Oral 
Reading 38 

5.  Growth  Stages  for  Average  Duration  of  Fixation  Pauses  in  Oral 
Reading 41 

6.  Growth  Stages  for  Average  Number  of  Regressive  Movements  per 
Line  in  Oral  Reading 43 

7.  Relationship  between  Average  Number  of  Fixations  per  Line  in  Oral 
Reading  and  Modified  Score  on  Gray  Oral  Reading  Paragraphs        .       46 

8.  Relationship  between  Average  Duration  of  Fixation  Pauses  in  Oral 
Reading  and  Modified  Score  on  Gray  Oral  Reading  Paragraphs        .       47 

9.  Relationship  between  Average  Number  of  Regressive  Movements  per 
Line  in  Oral  Reading  and  Modified  Score  on  Gray  Oral  Reading 
Paragraphs 49 

10.  Relationship  between  Average  Number  of  Fixations  per  Line  in 
Silent  Reading  and  Comprehension  Score  on  Monroe  Silent  Reading 
Test 51 

11.  Relationship  between  Average  Duration  of  Fixation  Pauses  in  Silent 
Reading  and  Comprehension  Score  on  Monroe  Silent  Reading  Test  .       53 

12.  Relationship  between  Average  Number  of  Regressive  Movements 
per  Line  in  Silent  Reading  and  Comprehension  Score  on  Monroe 
Silent  Reading  Test 54 

13.  Per  Cent  of  Increase  in  Growth  Curves  of  Three  EyeTMovcment 
Habits — Silent  Reading 56 

14.  Diagram  Illustrating  Hypothetical  Progress  toward  Maturity    .        .  59 

15.  Rhythm  of  Expression  of  Subject  i,  Grade  IB 94 

16.  Rhythm  of  Expression  of  Subject  14,  Grade  I  A 96 

17.  Rhythm  of  Expression  of  Thirteen  First-Grade  Subjects  in  Reading 
First  Line  of  Paragraph 100 

18.  Rhythm  of  Expression  of  Fourteen  First-Grade  Subjects  in  Reading 
Lines  within  Paragraph 10 1 

19.  Individual  Variation  from  Medians  for  Eye-Movements  in  Grade  VI  108 


LIST  OF  PLATES 


I.  Silent  Reading  by  Subject  17,  Grade  I  A  . 
II.  Silent  Reading  by  Subject  174,  College  Senior 

III.  Selections  Read  by  First-Grade  Subjects  . 

IV.  Selections  Read  by  All  Subjects  above  First  Grade 
V.  Selections  Used  for  Initial  Test  of  First-Grade  Subjects 

VI.  Oral  Reading  by  Subject  188,  Grade  IB. 
VII.  Silent  Reading  by  Subject  187,  Grade  IB 
VIII.  Silent  Reading  by  Subject  189,  Grade  IB 
IX.  Silent  Reading  by  Subject  11,  Grade  I  A,  First  Test 
X.  Silent  Reading  by  Subject  11,  Grade  I  A,  Second  Test 
XL  Silent  Reading  by  Subject  11,  Grade  I  A,  Third  Test 
XII.  Silent  Reading  by  Subject  13,  Grade  I  A,  First  Test 

XIII.  Silent  Reading  by  Subject  13,  Grade  I  A,  Second  and  Third 
Tests 

XIV.  Oral  Reading  by  Subject  194,  Grade  I  A  . 
XV.  Oral  Reading  by  Subject  10,  Grade  I  A    . 

XVI.  Silent  Reading  by  Subject  15,  Grade  I  A  . 

XVII.  Silent  Reading  by  Subject  19,  Grade  I  A  . 

XVIII.  Oral  Reading  by  Subject  182,  Grade  I  A  . 

XIX.  Oral  Reading  by  Subject  2,  Grade  IB. 

XX.  Oral  Reading  by  Subject  i,  Grade  IB 

XXI.  Oral  Reading  by  Subject  12,  Grade  I  A     . 

XXII.  Silent  Reading  by  Subject  12,  Grade  I  A  . 

XXIII.  Oral  Reading  by  Subject  i,  Grade  IB. 

XXIV.  Index  Numbers  for  Words  in  First-Grade  Selection 
XXV.  Oral  Reading  by  Subject  14,  Grade  I  A     . 

XXVI.  Silent  Reading  by  Subject  38,  Grade  II     . 

XXVII.  Silent  Reading  by  Subject  37,  Grade  II    . 

XXVIII.  Silent  Reading  by  Subject  25,  Grade  II    . 

XXIX.  Silent  Reading  by  Subject  52,  Grade  III  . 

XXX.  Silent  Reading  by  Subject  47,  Grade  III  . 

'XXXI.  Silent  Reading  by  Subject  62,  Grade  IV   . 


2 

3 
22 

2.3 

62 

67 
68 
70 
77 
78 
79 
So 

81 
82 
83 
84 
85 
87 
89 
90 
91 
93 
95 
97 
98 

112 

113 
114 
120 
121 
122 


LIST  OF  PLATES 


I.  Silent  Reading  by  Subject  17,  Grade  I  A  . 
II.  Silent  Reading  by  Subject  174,  College  Senior 

III.  Selections  Read  by  First-Grade  Subjects  . 

IV.  Selections  Read  by  All  Subjects  above  First  Grade 
V.  Selections  Used  for  Initial  Test  of  First-Grade  Subjects 

VI.  Oral  Reading  by  Subject  188,  Grade  IB. 
VII.  Silent  Reading  by  Subject  187,  Grade  IB 
VIII.  Silent  Reading  by  Subject  189,  Grade  IB 
IX.  Silent  Reading  by  Subject  11,  Grade  I  \,  First  Test 
X.  Silent  Reading  by  Subject  11,  Grade  I  A,  Second  Test 
XL  Silent  Reading  by  Subject  ir,  Grade  I  A,  Third  Test 
XII.  Silent  Reading  by  Subject  13,  Grade  I  A,  First  Test 

XIII.  Silent  Reading  by  Subject  13,  Grade  I  A,  Second  and 
Tests 

XIV.  Oral  Reading  by  Subject  194,  Grade  I  A  . 
XV.  Oral  Reading  by  Subject  10,  Grade  I  A     . 

XVI.  Silent  Reading  by  Subject  15,  Grade  I  A  . 

XVII.  Silent  Reading  by  Subject  19,  Grade  I  A  . 

XVIII.  Oral  Reading  by  Subject  182,  Grade  I  A  . 

XIX.  Oral  Reading  by  Subject  2,  Grade  IB. 

XX.  Oral  Reading  by  Subject  i,  Grade  IB 

XXI.  Oral  Reading  by  Subject  12,  Grade  I  A     . 

XXII.  Silent  Reading  by  Subject  12,  Grade  I  A  . 

XXIII.  Oral  Reading  by  Subject  i,  Grade  IB. 

XXIV.  Index  Numbers  for  Words  in  First-Grade  Selection 
XXV.  Oral  Reading  by  Subject  14,  Grade  I  A     . 

XXVI.  Silent  Reading  by  Subject  38,  Grade  II     . 

XXVII.  Silent  Reading  by  Subject  37,  Grade  II    . 

XXVIII.  Silent  Reading  by  Subject  25,  Grade  II    . 

XXIX.  Silent  Reading  by  Subject  52,  Grade  III  . 

XXX.  Silent  Reading  by  Subject  47,  Grade  III  . 

'XXXI.  Silent  Reading  by  Subject  62,  Grade  IV   . 


Third 


2 

3 
22 

2.3 

62 

67 
68 
70 
77 
78 

79 
80 

81 
82 
83 
84 
85 
87 
89 
90 
91 
93 
95 
97 
98 
112 

113 
114 
120 
121 
122 


Xll 

PLATE 

XXXII. 

XXXIII. 

XXXIV. 

XXXV. 

XXXVI. 

XXXMI. 

XXXVIII. 

XXXIX. 

XL. 

XLI. 

XLII. 

XLIII. 

XLIV. 


LIST  OF  PLATES 


PAGE 
123 

125 
126 


Silent  Reading  by  Subject  60,  Grade  IV  . 
Silent  Reading  by  Subject  59,  Grade  IV  . 
Silent  Reading  by  Subject  80,  Grade  V     . 

Silent  Reading  by  Subject  85,  Grade  V 127 

Silent  Reading  by  Subject  78,  Grade  V 129 

Silent  Reading  by  Subject  70,  Grade  V 130 

Silent  Reading  by  Subject  124,  High-School  Sophomore  .  132 
Silent  Reading  by  Subject  131,  High-School  Sophomore  .  133 
Silent  Reading  by  Subject  17s,  College  Senior  .  .  .  136 
Silent  Reading  by  Subject  172,  College  Senior  .  .  .137 
Test  Paragraph  for  Observation  of  Number  of  Fixations  per 

Line i44 

Test  Paragraph  for  Observation  of  Duration  of  Fixation 

Pauses 145 

Test  Paragraphs  for  Observation  of  Number  of  Regressive 
Movements  per  Line 146 


LIST  OF  TABLES 

TABLE  PAGE 

I.  General  Data  for  Silent  Reading — All  Subjects      ....  14 

IL  General  Data  for  Oral  Reading — All  Subjects        .        .        .        .  18 

III.  Growth  Stages  for  Average  Number  of  Fixations  per  Line  in 
Silent  Reading 26 

IV.  Growth  Stages  for  Average  Duration  of  Fixation  Pauses  in 
Silent  Reading ...  31 

V.  Growth  Stages  for  Average  Number  of  Regressive  Movements 

per  Line  in  Silent  Reading 34 

VI.  Growth  Stages  for  Average  Number  of  Fixations  per  Line  in 

Oral  Reading 37 

VII.  Growth  Stages  for  Average  Duration  of  Fixation  Pauses  in  Oral 

Reading 40 

VIII.  Growth  Stages  for  Average  Number  of  Regressive   Movements 

per  Line  in  Oral  Reading 42 

IX.  Relationship  between  Average  Number  of  Fixations  per  Line  in 
Oral  Reading  and  Modified  Score  on  Gray  Oral  Reading  Para- 
graphs     45 

X.  Relationship  between  Average  Duration  of  Fixation  Pauses  in 
Oral  Reading  and  Modified  Score  on  Gray  Oral  Reading  Para- 
graphs     47 

XL  Relationship  between  Average  Number  of  Regressive  Move- 
ments per  Line  in  Oral  Reading  and  Modified  Score  on  Gray 

Oral  Reading  Paragraphs 48 

XII.  Relationship  between  Average  Number  of  Fixations  per  Line 
in  Silent  Reading  and  Comprehension  Score  on  Monroe  Silent 
Reading  Test 5° 

XIII.  Relationship  between  Average  Duration  of  Fixation  Pauses  in 
Silent  Reading  and  Comprehension  Score  on  Monroe  Silent 
Reading  Test 52 

XIV.  Relationship  between  Average  Number  of  Regressive  Move- 
ments per  Line  in  Silent  Reading  and  Comprehension  Score 

on  Monroe  Silent  Reading  Test S3 

XV.  Per  Cent  of  Increase  in  Growth  Curves  of  Three  Eye-Movement 

Habits — Silent  Reading 55 

XVI.  Average  Number  of  Fixations  per  Line  in  First  and  Second 

Tests— First-Grade  Subjects 74 


xiv  LIST  OF  TABLES 

TABLE  PAGE 

XVII.  Grade  Medians  for  Eye-Movements  in  Silent  Reading         .  109 

XVIII.  Comparison  of  Individual  Records  with  Medians,  Grade  II  .  1 1 1 

XIX.  Comparison  of  Individual  Records  with  Medians,  Grade  III  1 18 

XX.  Comparison  of  Individual  Records  with  Medians,  Grade  IV  .        .  119 

XXI.  Comparison  of  Individual  Records  with  Medians,  Grade  V   .        .128 

XXII.  Comparison  of  Individual  Records  with  Medians,  High-School 

Sophomores 134 

XXIII.  Comparison    of    Individual    Records    with    Medians,    College 

Seniors 134 

XXIV\  Grade  Medians  for  Eye-Movements  in  Oral  Reading  .        .        .  135 


CHAPTER  I 

FUNDAMENTALS  IN  READING 

In  the  silent  reading  of  an  easy  paragraph,  Barbara,  a  first-grade 
pupil,  read  at  a  rate_pf  39.6  words  per  minute,  while  Miss.  W,  a  college 
Senior,  read  at  a  rate  of  369  words  per  minute.  A  further  analysis  of 
the  records  of  these  two  readers  shows  that  the  first-grade  pupil  has  a 
very  narrow  recognition  span,  making  an  average  of  21.3  fixation  pauses 
per  line,  while  the  college  student  has  a  very  wide  span,  requiring  only 
3.6  fixations  per  line.  The  first-grade  pupil  was  not  sure  of  her  recogni- 
tion of  words  even  after  her  eyes  had  fixated  upon  them,  and  con- 
sequently found  it  necessary  to  make  an  average  of  6.8  backward,  or 
re-fixating,  movements  per  line.  The  college  student,  however,  did  not 
make  a  single  backward  eye-movement  in  reading  the  entire  paragraph. 
A  further  difiference  between  the  habits  of  these  two  readers  can  be  seen 
in  the  duration  of  their  fixations.  In  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  first-grade 
pupil  had  a  very  narrow  recognition  span,  she  required  an  average  of 
1 1.7  twenty-fifths  of  a  second  per  fixation  pause  to  get  a  clear  perception 
of  this  small  unit  of  material;  while  the  college  student  recognized  a 
much  wider  unit  in  an  average  fixation  time  of  8  twentv-fifths  of  a  second. 
The  record  of  the  first-grade  pupil  gave  clear  evidence  of  periods  of 
mental  confusion,  but  that  of  the  college  student  was  perfectly  regular 
throughout.  The  eye-movement  records  of  these  two  subjects  are 
shown  in  Plates  I  and  II. 

The  cases  just  described  illustrate  the  jvide^fference  between  the 
reading  habits  of  the  beginner  and  the  ma:ture  reader,  ^he  task  of  the 
school  is  to  convert  the  habits  of  the  one  into  those  of  the  other.  While 
the  wide  interval  between  these  two  extremes  is  perfectly  evident,  the 
detailed  steps  of  growth  from  the  beginning  stages  to  ultimate  mature 
habits  are  not  ordinarily  thought  of  by  those  who  are  planning  school 
courses.  However,  it  is  with  these  detailed  steps  that  the  teaching 
process  is  most  concernedrl  An  examination  of  the  records  in  Plates  I 
and  II  gives  no  indication  of  the  nature  of  the  route  over  which  the  col- 
lege student  has  passed,  nor  of  the  manner  in  which  the  first-grade  pupil 
may  finally  reach  a  similar  degree  of  expertness  in  reading.  What  the 
records  do  show  is  the  meaning  of  immaturity  and  of  maturity.  When 
the  ultimate  goal  of  reading  instruction  is  known,  the  teacher  is  at  liberty 


FUNDAMENTAL  READING  HABITS 


PLATE  I* 


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A  bo 


litte 


og. 


Or 


6  d£,y 


the 


dog 


22  7   8        8  li         4>      II      T      5  I  4         Ifc  13   <.      S   <i       II      18       4  16 

Cp  9  4.  5  »     lO 

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ran  im 


an  imto  the 


wo 


Dds. 


The 


b 


Dy  ran  arter 


thi 


1^  C  29     T     5  (,5  10       3     20     7    8     3  9    fc         I4>  <»    3     12 


3  4    2    5  <i  T        8    10      II  1        12  13    21      14       IS      16        IT  13    Zf> 


og. 


I:  e  want(;c 


tie 


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dog 


to 


g3  hoin 


8  <p7S  T  ir      13  10     12         <il4  S  (o       (o      4      3         548 

2<.  4  T 


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boy    said, 


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ird 


with) 


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.2      34,  20  3  fc  J!      3   IS  12  4 


at  my 


T    10      3 
IS 


43  5    -a 


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rhen 


he  began 


0  cry. 


12       52  4     13  24  4  4  7  43 

Silent  reading  by  Subject  17,  Grade  I A 

*In  all  plates  showing  records  of  eye-movements  the  positions  of  the  eye-fixations  are 
indicated  by  the  short  vertical  lines  drawn  across  the  lines  of  print.  The  serial  numbers  above 
the  verticals  indicate  the  order  of  the  pauses;  the  number  at  the  lower  end  of  each  vertical 
indicates,  in  twenty-fifths  of  a  second,  the  duration  of  the  fixation.  A  cross  appearing  instead 
of  a  number  at  the  lower  end  of  a  vertical  indicates  that  the  duration  of  the  fixation  could  not 
be  determined  with  precision.  An  oblique  line  indicates  a  pronounced  head-movement,  the 
exact  location  of  the  fixation  being  at  some  point  between  the  ends  of  the  oblique. 


FUNDAMENTALS  IN  READING 


PLATE  II 


One  night  Pet^r  went  to  bed  eaifly.    It  w^s 


3 

sji( 


not  dirk.    The  bright  moon  s|ione  in  at  phe 

14-  9 

I  2  3  4 

wiidow.     Peter  could  see  ek^erything  in  tlie 

II  S  8  4 

I  2.  3  4 

rooih.    All  at  on^e  he  heard  a  noise.    Pettr 

a 


opened  his  eyes.   He  saw  that  the  room 


had 


gro^^ 


n    dark.     Something   was    outside    the 


window. 


Silent  reading  by  Subject  174,  college  Senior 


4  FUNDAMENTAL  READING  HABITS 

to  use  whatever  methods  may  be  considered  best,  provided  always  that 
the  final  outcome  is  in  accord  with  the  known  characteristics  of  maturity. 

The  reading  process  is  a  complex  made  up  of  many  elements. 
Although  the  mature  reader  has  attained  a  high  degree  of  mastejy  of 
all  of  these,  he  frequently  does  not  progress  uniformly  in  the  various 
elements.  The  rate  and  order  of  development  of  the  different  reading 
habits  depend  largely  upon  the  methods  by  which  the  subject  is  taught. 
The  use  of  different  methods  simply  means  that  pupils  are  being  led 
over  different  routes  in  their  journey  toward  maturity.  In  ail  prob- 
ability these  various  routes  are  not  equally  economical,  but  they  must 
be  judged  not  by  an  observation  of  any  particular  point  along  the  way, 
but  rather  by  the  manner  in  which  they  finally  issue  in  attainment  of 
the  desired  goal  of  maturity.  The  conviction  that  the  various  routes 
are  not  all  equally  economical  leads  one  to  ask  what  methods  of  education 
will  ultimately  be  most  desirable,  that  is,  what  methods  carry  the  pupil 
from  start  to  finish  by  the  most  advantageous  route.  The  psychol- 
ogist, however,  is  not  concerned  merely  with  the  questions  of  advantage 
or  disadvantage.  He  is  concerned  as  a  scientist  with  all  the  possible 
routes  which  are  actually  followed.  His  problem  is  broader  than  that 
of  the  practical  teacher  who  is  seeking  economy.  He  is  compelled  there- 
fore to  study  all  varieties  of  reading.  Regardless  of  which  elements  of 
reading  are,  in  a  particular  case,  developed  first,  he  will  take  note  of  the 
common  elements  and  will  thus  contribute  to  practical  procedure  because 
many  methods  of  teaching  without  doubt  dev'elop  ultimately  all  the 
elements  which  are  fundamental  to  the  process. 

Certain  characteristics  of  the  period  of  transition  from  immaturity 
to  maturitv  may  be  described  without  the  assistance  of  elaborate  experi- 
mental investigation.  One  of  the  most  conspicuous  elements  in  the 
growth  of  reading  habits  is  the  ability  to  pronounce  words.  The  ^r 
beginner  finds  this  a  very  difficult  process.  His  method  of  attacking  an 
unknown  word  depends  upon  the  manner  in  which  he  has  been  taught, 
but  whether  he  recognizes  the  word  by  general  inspection  or  by  phonic 
analysis,  a  considerable  amount  of  mental  effort  is  involved.  As  the 
child  advances  through  the  grades  pronunciation  becomes  progressively 
easier,  requiring,  for  the  mature  reader,  only  a  minimum  of  consciousness. 
The  teacher  can  determine  progress  in  this  element  by  a  simple  pronun- 
ciation test  and  can  easily  chart  the  normal  growth  curve  for  a  class. 

Another  element  of  reading  consists  in  the  ability  to  recognize  the   % . 
meaning  of   words.     This  is  a  more  difficult  process  than  simple  pro- 
nunciation since  it  involves  not  only  a  recognition  of  the  word  but 


\ 


FUNDAMENTALS  IN  READING 


also  an  extension  of  experience  sufficient  to  provide  a  meaningful  con- 
tent with  which  the  word  may  be  associated.  The  word  "radio"  is  not 
difficult  to  pronounce,  but  until  the  present  year  few  elementary  children 
were  familiar  with  its  meaning  because  it  was  not  a  part  of  their  expe- 
rience. Since  a  recognition  of  the  meaning  of  words  demands  a  breadth 
of  experience  which  includes  the  word,  it  is  clear  that  ultimate  maturity 
in  this  element  will  be  a  difficult  point  to  reach.  However,  the  exten- 
sion of  the  pupil's  vocabulary  to  provide  for  the  recognition  of  common 
words  is  one  of  the  fundamental  requirements  of  the  course  in  reading. 

A  third  element,  and  one  which  involves  still  further  difficulties,  is 
the  alji^ily  to  interpret  sentences  or  paragraphs.     In  this  respect  the      I 
difference  between  the  immature  and  the  mature  reader  is  very  great. 
The  tendency  of  some  beginners  is  to  conceive  of  reading  as  the  con- 
secutive pronunciation  of  words.     In  so  doing  their  consciousness  is 
almost  entirely  focused  upon  the  separate  words  rather  than  upon  the 
thought  of  the  sentence  or  paragraph.     The  mature  reader,  on  the  other 
hand,   devotes  practically  his  entire  consciousness   to   the  process  of 
thought  interpretation.     Maturity  in  interpreting  words  in  their  rela- 
tions involves  the  ability  to  fuse  a  number  of  words,  in  the  particular 
order  in  which  they  occur,  into  a  single  thought  whole.     The  demand  is 
chiefly  upon  the  higher  mental  processes  rather  than  upon  the  eye, 
although  until  the  eye  has  so  mastered  the  perception  of  words  that 
attention  can  be  withdrawn  from  the  act  of  fixation,  it  will  be  impossible 
to  give  maximum  attention  to  the  process  of  interpretation.     Growth^ 
in  this  element  is,  as  would  be  expected,  a  process  which  extends  through-?" 
out  the  entire  school  period.     It  is  complicated  by  the  continuous  pres' 
entation  of  increasingly  difficult  materials  in  the  upper  grades.     Growth ~^^ 
in  ability  to  interpret  the  meaning  of  a  passage  has  generally  been   ■ 
regarded  as  the  most  vital  element  in  reading.     All  teachers  of  reading 
have  at  least  a  general  concept  of  the  growth  stages  in  this  process; 
while  some,  by  the  careful  use  of  tests  of  comprehension,  have  a  very 
definite  notion  of  the  successive  stages  of  progress.     The  recent  emphasis 
on  the  teaching  of  silent  reading  is  one  indication  of  the  recognition  of 
the  need  of  growth  in  interpretation. 

The  nature  of  the  transition  from  immaturity  to  maturity  has  been 
described  for  three  elements  of  the  reading  process,  namely,  ability  to  ;  _ 
pronounce  words,  ability  to  recognize  the  meaning  of  words,  and  ability  '7 
to  interpret  the  meaning  of  sentences  and  paragraphs.     More  detailed  ./ 
analyses  of  these  and  other  elements  need  to  be  made.     A  number  of 
methods  are  available. 


\ 


/b 


^s 


6  FUNDAMENTAL  READING  HABITS 

One  useful  means  of  determining  the  stage  of  transition  from 
immaturity  to  maturity  is  the  measurement  of  the  rate  of  reading. 
Rate  has  been  widely  studied,  and  the  general  korms  of  progress  for 
each  grade  are  well  known.  While  individual  variations  are  found,  the 
fact  remains  that  in  general  the  mature  reader  is  the  rapid  reader,  show- 
ing the  most  striking  contrast,  in  this  respect,  with  the  beginner.  For 
the  two  cases  described  at  the  opening  of  this  chapter,  the  rate  of  the 
college  student  was  nearly  ten  times  as  great  as  that  of  the  first-grade 
pupil.  The  measurement  of  rate  is  one  of  the  simplest  means  of  deter- 
mining the  maturity  of  the  reading  process. 

Another  method  of  analysis  consists  in  measuring  results  by  means  of 
standardized  educational  tests.  By  this  means  reading  has  been  studied 
in  respect  to  such  characteristics  as  rate,  comprehension,  ability  to  follow 
printed  directions,  etc.  This  method  has  proceeded  by  formulating 
various  types  of  tests  from  which  mass  data  have  been  obtained.  From 
these  mass  data  grade  norms  are  determined,  in  comparison  with  which 
individual  cases  may  be  studied.  As  instruments  of  analysis,  standard- 
ized tests  possess  certain  merits  as  well  as  certain  marked  limitations. 
Their  most  pronounced  limitation  is  that  they  deal  with  results  rather 
than  with  the  processes  back  of  the  results;  with  complexes  rather  than 
elements.  The  tests  give  a  comprehension  score,  but  do  not  analyze 
the  components  of  the  mental  processes  involved.  They  measure  rate 
of  reading,  but  do  not  tell  whether  the  rate  is  a  product  of  a  narrow 
recognition-span  and  a  short  average  fixation  time,  or  of  a  wide 
recognition-span  and  a  long  average  fixation  time,  or  of  an  average  devel- 
opment of  each.  An  adequate  analysis  must  go  back  of  a  raw  statement 
of  rate  to  a  measure  of  conjponent  elements  of  the  reading  process. 

Still  another  method  of  analyzing  the  steps  of  transition  to  maturity, 
in  reading  is  by  careful  teaching.  There  is  no  doubt  that  the  superior 
teacher  can  note  with  more  or  less  precision  the  change  from  stage  to 
stage  in  the  progress  of  the  pupils.  Teachers  who  construct  a  definite 
scheme  of  methods  for  the  express  purpose  of  developing  certain  elements 
in  a  certain  order  are  able  to  ascertain  with  a  fair  degree  of  accuracy  when 
particular  stages  are  reached.  It  would  not  be  safe  to  assume,  however, 
that  what  can  be  done  by  a  superior  teacher  with  a  considerable  fund  of  ex- 
perience can  be  done  by  the  average  teacher  of  reading.  From  all  observa- 
tion, it  is  only  the  superior  teacher  who  analyzes  the  progress  of  her  pupils. 

While  some  analysis  of  growth  stages  in  reading  can  be  made  through 
the  use  of  standardized  tests  and  through  the  processes  of  superior 
teaching,  it  is  clear  that  a  detailed  analysis  of  the  reading  process  itself 
is  beyond  the  reach  of  both.     A  satisfactory  method  of  studying  the 


FUNDAMENTALS  IN  READING  7 

growth  of  reading  habits  must  rest  upon  the  measurement,  either  directly 
or  indirectly,  of  some  aspect  of  the  actual  process  of  reading.  Further- 
more, this  method  must  be  objective  in  character,  rather  than  dependent 
upon  the  subjective  judgment  of  even  a  superior  teacher.  The  method 
which  most  fully  meets  these  requirements  is  that  of  photographing  the 
eye-movements  of  a  pupil  during  the  process  of  reading.  Eye- 
movements  are  by  no  means  the  whole  of  the  reader's  activity  when 
looking  at  the  printed  page  but  they  are  parts  of  his  nervous  and 
muscular  effort  in  reading.  Furthermore,  they  furnish  the  most  objec- 
tive symptoms  available  of  the  mental  processes  of  the  reader. 

The  study  of  the  reading  process  through  the  medium  of  photographic 
records  of  eye-movements  is  not  a  new  method.  However,  since  a 
summary  statement  of  the  meaning  and  significance  of  the  data  thus 
obtained  has  not  appeared  in  the  previous  literature  of  reading,  a  some- 
what detailed  discussion  here  may  be  of  value  in  interpreting  the  material 
presented  in  the  following  chapters. 

Eye-movements  as  such  are  purely  mechanical  processes,  being,  at 
least  superficially,  the  result  of  the  contractions  of  the  external  muscles 
of  the  eye  rather  than  of  any  central  thought  processes  of  the  mind. 
And  yet,  just  as  hand-movements  are  necessary  to  writing,  so  also  the 
processes  of  reading  cannot  be  carried  on  without  eye-movements;  and 
just  as  good  writing  demands  a  careful  control  of  hand-movements,  so 
also  mature  reading  demands  a  delicately  co-ordinated  type  of  eye- 
movements.  Handwriting  requires  a  fine  control  of  finger,  hand,  and 
arm  muscles  which  is  unlike  any  co-ordination  which  the  child  learns  in 
his  ordinary  activities.  Therefore,  the  school  attempts  to  teach  him 
to  meet  the  artificial  demands  of  the  handwriting  process  by  a  long 
series  of  formal  drill  exercises.  Reading  requires  a  delicate  and  con- 
tinuous control  of  small  eye-movements  which  is  entirely  different  in 
character  from  any  natural  demands. which  the  pre-school  experience  of 
the  child  has  presented,  but  the  school  treats  this  matter  in  a  very  differ- 
ent manner  from  the  similar  situation  in  handwriting.  There  are  at 
least  two  reasons  for  this  difference  in  treatment.  The  first  is  the  fact 
that  writing  seems  to  be  the  immediate  result  of  hand-movements,  while 
reading,  as  a  process  of  recognition  and  interpretation,  goes  very  much 
beyond  the  movements  of  the  eye§.  A  second  reason  is  the  fact  that 
eye-movements  are  not  so  easily  subject  to  direct,  conscious  control  as 
are  hand-mo  v^ements,  it  being  necessary  to  develop  the  former  in  an 
indirect  manner.  Ordinarily  teachers  as  well  as  pupils  do  not  think  at 
all  about  eye-movements.  The  adjustments  involved  are  accomplished 
through  ordinary  reading  processes. 


8  FUNDAMENTAL  READING  HABITS 

However,  the  significance  of  eye-movements  goes  far  beyond  the 
mechanics  of  reading.  The  use  of  eye-movment  records  in  the  analysis 
<^  of  reading  rests  primarily  upon  the  fact  that  they  furnish  an  objective 
i  symptom  of  the  character  of  the  reading  process.  Unless  the  attention 
of  the  reader  is  specifically  directed  to  them  he  is  entirely  unconscious  of 
their  nature.  Consequently,  a  photographic  record  of  eye-movements 
is  based  upon  a  reaction  which  cannot  be  consciously  modified  to  suit 
the  occasion  of  a  test.  It  is  as  difhcult  to  modify  directly  one's  eye- 
movements  while  reading  as  it  is  to  modify  purposely  the  character  of 
one's  habitual  gait  in  walking.  A  person  walks  in  one  manner  when 
hurrying  to  catch  a  train,  in  another  when  strolling  through  the  park, 
and  perhaps  in  a  still  different  manner  when  stepping  to  the  speaker's 
desk  upon  a  platform  when  a  thousand  eyes  are  focused  upon  him. 
His  manner  of  walking  is  the  unconscious  expression  of  his  whole  nervous 
condition  under  such  circumstances,  a  symptom  of  the  purpose  dominat- 
ing his  action.  When  we  see  a  man  rushing  dow^  the  street  we  do  not 
infer  that  he  is  taking  a  stroll.  Furthermore,  we  do  not  confuse  the 
toddle  of  the  infant  with  the  vigorous  stride  of  the  adolescent  or  the 
more  dignified  step  of  maturity.  A  person's  walking  furnishes  a 
symptom  of  his  stage  of  maturity.  In  a  similar  fashion  a  person's 
eye-movements  furnish  an  index  of  the  general  nature  of  his  reading 
process,  a  symptom  of  the  stage  of  maturity  of  his  readipg  habits. 
When  we  see  a  person  making  an  average  of  20  fixations  per  line  in  read- 
ing we  know  that  he  is  not  grasping  the  meaning  easily  or  rapidly.  In 
like  manner,  when  we  observe  a  person  making  an  average  of  4  fixations 
per  line  we  know  that  he  is  either  reading  superficially  or  has  reached 
a  mature  stage  of  reading.  (The  making  of  only  4  eye-fixations  does 
not  cause  maturity  of  reading;  maturity  causes  the  making  of  only  4 
fixations  per  line.  Eye-movements  are  effects,  symptoms;  but  they 
are  symptoms  because  they  are  themselves  necessary  phases  of  the 
p  process  and  hence  very  fundamental  elements  of  reading.  The  fact  that 
:  they  are  not  subject  to  direct  conscious  control  makes  them  reliable  as 
a  measure  of  reading  ability.  The  further  fact  that  they  are  entirely 
objective  in  character,  capable  of  yielding  an  accurate  photographic 
record,  makes  the  use  of  eye-movements  one  of  the  most  significant, 
methods  for  the  analysis  of  growth  in  reading.  It  is  this  method  of 
analysis  which  has  been  employed  in  securing  the  greater  part  of  the 
data  for  this  investigation. 

A  careful  survey  of  the  previous  monographs  dealing  with  eye- 
movements,  as  well  as  the  data  of  the  present  study,  will  show  the 
manner  in  which  the  eye-movements  of  a  reader  furnish  a  symptom  of 


FUNDAMENTALS  IN  READING  9 

the  character  of  his  thought  processes..  One  of  the  first  indications  of 
such  a  relationship  appeared  in  a  study  of  the  effect  of  size  of  type  upon 
the  habits  of  eye-fixation.  If  eye-movements  were  purely  sensory 
accommodations  one  would  expect  to  iind  their  number  increased  by 
an  increase  in  size  of  type.  However,  change  in  the  type  produced 
only  a  slight  difference  in  the  character  of  the  eye-movements.  The 
conclusion  drawn  was  that  the<gensory  conditions  of  reading  were  not 
of  as  great  importance  as  the  individual's  habits  of  reading/ and  that  the 
amount  the  reader  recognizes  depends  upon  his  training.^  The_unit.  of 
recognition  is  not^determjned  by  so  many  millimeters  of  space,  but  by 
certam  meaningful  units  which  remain  f^irry^mnstant,  even  though  the 
print  may  be  enlarged  in  size. 

Another  indication  of  the  close  relationship  between  eye-movements 
and  thought  processes  is  furnished  by  the  fact  that  a  period  of  confusion 
in  the  recognition  of  meaning  is  accompanied  by  a  corresponding  con- 
fusion of  eye-movements.  A  close  checking  of  eye-movements  with  a 
dictaphone  record  of  oral  reading  brings  out  this  relationship  very  clearly. 
The  same  fact  can  be  shown  through  introspective  accounts  of  difficulties 
in  silent  reading,  or  through  the  introduction  of  words  having  a  dual 
pronunciation  and  a  dual  meaning.  An  analysis  of  the  eye-movement 
record  gives  a  clear  indication  of  where  the  reader  experienced  confusion 
in  getting  the  meaning. 

The  introduction  of  strange  or  difficult  words  produces  a  marked 
effect  upon  the  character  of  the  eye-movements;  and  conversely,  when 
these  characteristic  forms  of  eye-behavior  are  observed  in  a  record, 
one  feel's  justified  in  assuming  that  some  difficulty  in  word-recognition 
has  occurred.  It  is  further  found  that  increasing  the  difficulty  of  a 
selection  tends  to  increase  the  number  and  duration  of  eye-fixations. 

The  character  of  the  eye-habits  is  radically  affected  by  reading  varied 
types  of  material,  the  eye  behaving  differently  when  the  material  read 
is  simple  fiction  than  it  does  when  the  material  is  taken  from  an  algebra 
or  a  rhetoric  textbook.  When  the  characteristic  eye-movements  are 
known,  therefore,  one  may  gain  some  idea  of  the  relative  difficulty  of 
differen?  kinds  of  material  for  a  given  individual.  Likewise,  a  change 
in  j,he  purpose  of  reading  is  reflected  by  the  eye-movements.  During 
'Serious,  careful  reading  such  as  occurs  in  the  study  process  the  number 
and  duration  of  the  fixations  are  increased. 

An  investigation  of  the  eye-voice  span  in  oral  reading  has  shown  a 
definite  tendency  of  the  eye  to  modify  its  behavior  according  to  sentence 
units.  A  disregard  of  sentence  units  by  an  immature  reader  can  be 
noted  from  the  character  of  the  eye-voice  relationship. 


/ 


lO  FUNDAMENTAL  READING  HABITS 

Using  eye-movement  symptoms  as  the  basis  of  investigation,  it  is 
the  purpose  of  this  monograph  to  study  the  development  of  certain 
fundamental  reading  habits.  Defining(reading  as  the  process  of  getting 
meaning  from  printed  material,  the  first  fundamental  is  the  develop- 
ment, on  the  part  of  the  child,  of  a  correct  attitude  toward  reading- 
matter.  Although  this  attitude  may  be  too  complex  to  class  as  an 
"element,"  its  requirements  are  that  the  child  recognize  that  the  groups 
of  words,  in  the  order  in  which  they  are  printed,  represent  certain  ideas, 
and  that  to  get  these  ideas,  the  words  must  be  read  in  the  order  in  which 
they  appear.  Sooner  or  later  the  pupil  takes  the  attitude  that  reading 
consists  of  gaining  ideas  from  groups  of  words,  rather  than  that  it  is 
an  arithmetical  process  of  adding  word  to  word. 

When  this  attitude  has  been  adopted  by  the  child,  the  process  of 
growth  toward  maturity  has  been  started.  By  way  of  general  indication 
of  the  kind  of  changes  which  are  discoverable  through  a  study  of  eye- 
movements  the  following  Ust  of  aspects  or  elements  of  the  reading 
process  and  its  development  may  be  enumerated. 

1.  The  development  of  a  broad  recognition  unit,  as  measured  by  the 
average  scope  of  eye-fixations. 

2.  The  development  of  habits  of  quick  recognition,  regardless  of 
the  size  of  the  unit,  as  measured  by  the  duration  of  fixation  pauses. 

'3.  The  development  of  precision  of  recognition  and  regularity  of 
progress  across  printed  lines,  as  measured  inversely  by  regressive,  or 
backward,  eye-movements. 

4.  The  development  of  habits  of  expression  or  recognition  in  terms 
of  thought  units,  as  measured,  for  the  oral  process,  by  timing  the  rhythm 
of  pronunciation. 

5.  The  development  of  independence  in  word-recognition. 

An  analysis  of  the  steps  of  growth  in  these  several  elements  makes 
possible  a  better  understanding  of  the  nature  of  the  transition  from 
immaturity  to  maturity  in  reading.  The  method  of  investigation  con- 
sists of  the  taking  of  a  cross-section  view  of  the  stages  of  development  of 
a  large  number  of  subjects,  selected  from  all  of  the  grades  of  the  schools. 
Since  ultimately  all  of  the  subjects  will  approximate  the  stage  of 
maturity,  an  examination  of  the  successive  cross-sections  will  show  not 
only  the  general  trend  of  development  in  the  different  elements  for  the 
majority  of  the  subjects,  but  also  the  variations  of  certain  subjects  from 
the  general  norms  of  growth.  It  is  the  purpose  of  this  monograph  to 
provide  an  analysis  of  these  fundamental  elements  which  will  make  possible 
a  description  of  the  normal  growth  curves  and  an  explanation  of  the 
situations  in  which  pronounced  variations  from  the  norms  are  apparent. 


CHAPTER  II 

GROWTH  STAGES  OF  CERTAIN  ELEMENTS  OF  READING 

Problem. — The  first  problem  with  which  the  present  investigation  is 
concerned  is  the  determination  of  the  stages  of  growth  for  three  fun- 
damental elements  of  reading.  These  elements  are,  first,  the  span  of 
recognition  fof  printed  material;  second,  the  rate  of  recognition  regard- 
less of  the  size  of  the  recognition  unit;  and  third,  the  regularity  or 
rhythmic  progress  of  the  perceptions  along  the  printed  lines.  The  basic 
data  utilized  in  determining  the  growth  curves  were  secured  from  the 
measurement  of  the  three  primary  characteristics  of  eye-movements, 
which  are  symptoms,  respectively,  of  the  fundamental  elements  just 
mentioned.  These  characteristics  are,  first,  the  average  number  of 
fixations  per  line;  second,  the  average  duration  of  fixations;  and  third, 
the  average  number  of  regressive  movements  per  line. 

Growth  in  these  elements  of  reading  will  be  measured,  first,  by  noting 
the  improvement  in  each  element  in  the  successive  school  grades,  and, 
second,  by  noting  the  improvement  in  each  element  which  accompanies 
successive  degrees  of  maturity  in  reading  as  measured  by  a  standardized 
test  of  comprehension  in  silent  reading  and  a  standardized  test  of  general 
achievement  in  oral  reading. 

The  method  of  securing  and  plotting  the  photographic  records  has 
been  described  rather  fully  in  a  previous  monograph  of  this  series^  and 
need  not  be  repeated  in  full  here.  A  brief  summary  of  the  method  may, 
however,  be  of  some  service.  It  consists  of  photographing  a  beam  of 
light,  generated  by  a  high-power  nitrogen  bulb,  reflected  first  to  the 
cornea  of  the  eye  from  silvered  glass  mirrors,  and  then  from  the  cornea 
through  a  camera  lens  to  the  moving  kinetoscope  film.  The  direction 
of  the  pencil  of  light  is  changed  with  each  movement  of  the  eye.  While 
the  subject  reads  a  photograph  is  made  which  records  the  horizontal 
movements  of  the  eye  as  a  sharply  focused  line  upon  the  film.  An 
electrically  driven  tuning-fork,  with  a  vibration  rate  of  twenty-five  per 
second,  is  mounted  in  the  path  of  the  beam  of  hght  in  such  a  manner 
that  the  pencil  of  Hght  is  intercepted  at  each  vibration.     These  vibra- 

'  G.T.Bu?,we[[,  An  Experimental  Study  of  the  Eye-Voice  Span  in  Reading,  Supple- 
mentary Educational  Monograpfe,  No.  17,  pp.  3-7.  Chicago-  Department  of  Edu- 
cation, University  of  Chicago,  1920. 


12  FUNDAMENTAL  READING  HABITS 

tions  produce  on  the  film  a  line  of  dots  rather  than  a  solid  line,  each 
dot  representing  exactly  one  twenty-fifth  of  a  second.  Since  the  film 
moves  continuously  in  a  vertical  plane,  the  record  shows  a  vertical  line 
of  dots  while  the  eye  is  fixated  in  a  single  position,  and  a  short  horizontal 
line  when  the  eye  is  in  motion  in  a  horizontal  or  oblique  direction. 
Vertical  movements  of  the  eyes  are  lost.  A  bright  nickel-plated  bead 
fastened  to  a  pair  of  spectacle  rims  worn  by  the  reader  makes  a  second 
line  upon  the  film,  which  furnishes  an  index  of  head  movement  and  gives 
a  constant  point  of  reference  for  plotting  the  film.  The  method  makes 
possible  an  accurate  record  showing  the  position  and  duration  of  each 
fixation  of  the  eye  while  the  subject  reads. 

The  apparatus  used  in  this  part  of  the  investigation  is  the  same  as 
that  used  by  other  investigators  in  the  Chicago  laboratory,  with  the 
exception  of  four  rather  important  modifications.  A  complete  descrip- 
tion of  the  apparatus  prior  to  these  modifications  may  be  found  in  a 
monograph  by  C.  T.  Gray.' 

The  first  change  in  the  apparatus  consisted  in  substituting  for  the 
arc-lamp  a  400-watt  nitrogen  bulb  containing  a  series  of  six  parallel 
filament  coils.  This  bulb  gave  an  intensity  of  light  which  was  entirely 
satisfactory,  and  it  possessed  the  added  advantage  of  being  absolutely 
constant  in  position  and  quahty  of  light,  since  it  required  no  continuous 
readjustments  as  are  necessary  with  the  carbons  of  an  arc-lamp. 

A  second  modification  was  the  substitution  of  a  tuning-fork  time 
marker  with  a  vibration  rate  of  25  per  second  in  place  of  the  previously 
used  fork  with  a  rate  of  50  vibrations.  This  modification  was  made  for 
the  purpose  of  reducing  the  labor  of  counting  the  time  dots  on  the  films. 
Since  the  shortest  fixations  are  considerably  longer  than  one  twenty- 
fifth  of  a  second,  the  validity  of  the  record  is  in  no  way  impaired.  The 
point  should  be  carefully  noted,  however,  that  the  duration  of  fixations 
in  all  data  in  the  present  monograph  is  given  in  terms  of  twenty-fifths 
of  a  second,  while  in  the  previous  studies  from  the  Chicago  laboratory 
the  time  unit  was  one  fiftieth  of  a  second. 

A  third  change  in  the  apparatus  was  made  in  the  film  carriage. 
Previous  to  the  present  study  the  apparatus  was  limited  to  the  use  of  a 
48-inch  film.  At  the  rate  of  movement  across  the  path  of  light,  a  film 
of  this  length  allowed  approximately  one  minute  of  reading  time.  The 
use  of  such  a  short  film,  therefore,  seriously  limited  the  amount  of 

'  C.  T.  Gray,  Types  of  Reading  Ability  as  Exhibited  through  Tests  and  Laboratory 
Experiments,  Supplementary  Educational  Monographs,  Vol.  I,  No.  5,  pp.  83-90. 
Chicago:  Department  of  Education,  University  of  Chicago,  1917. 


GROWTH  STAGES  OF  CERTAIN  ELEMENTS  OF  READING  13 

material  which  could  be  read  at  a  single  sitting.  It  is  desirable  that  a 
much  longer  sample  of  reading  be  secured.  To  make  this  possible,  a 
new  mechanism  was  installed  by  means  of  which  kinetoscope  film  can 
be  used.  As  the  apparatus  stands  at  present  a  two-hundred-foot  spool 
of  film  can  be  inserted  in  one  of  the  film  boxes,  which  makes  possible  a 
continuous  picture  for  any  duration  of  time  up  to  forty  minutes.  The 
practical  uses  of  the  apparatus  are  greatly  increased  by  this  modifica- 
tion. 

The  fourth  change  consisted  in  the  construction  of  a  special  tachisto- 
scopic  device  for  holding  the  material  to  be  read.  It  allows  three  selec- 
tions of  material  to  be  presented  to  the  reader  by  the  simple  pulling  of 
a  lever,  which  causes  the  reader  about  the  same  amount  of  disturbance 
as  turning  the  pages  of  a  book.  It  makes  possible  the  use  of  longer 
selections  with  no  interruption  of  the  reader. 

Subjects. — In  gathering  data  on  this  problem,  photographic  records 
were  taken  of  the  eye-moverrients  of  186  different  subjects  selected  from 
all  grades  of  the  elementary  school  and  high  school,  and  from  an  adult 
college  group.  With  the  exception  of  ten  first-grade  children  and  fifteen 
high-school  students  all  were  selected  from  the  University  of  Chicago 
laboratory  schools.  The  exceptions  noted  were  drawn  from  public 
schools  near  the  University.  In  selecting  subjects  below  the  high-school 
level  for  this  part  of  the  investigation  exceptionally  good  and  poor 
readers  were  eliminated,  since  the  purpose  was  to  find  the  normal  growth 
curves.  In  Grades  II  to  VI  this  elimination  was  based  upon  scores  in 
standardized  reading  tests.  In  the  first  grade  the  teacher  excluded  the 
most  mature  and  immature  readers  on  the  basis  of  their  class  work. 
The  high-school  and  college  group  were  not  selected  on  the  basis  of 
reading  ability  since  no  reading  scores  were  available.  For  the  most 
part  they  were  students  of  average  scholarship,  although  in  the  high- 
school  junior  class  some  students  were  included  who  ranked  as  superior. 
The  number  of  subjects  from  each  grade  and  their  individual  eye- 
movement  data  are  shown  in  Tables  I  and  II. 

Selections  read. — With  the  exception  of  the  first-grade  pupils  all 
subjects  read  the  same  selection.  The  purpose  of  using  the  same  para- 
graphs throughout  was  to  keep  this  element  constant  in  order  that  the 
growth  curves  would  not  be  affected  by  varying  degrees  of  difficulty  in 
the  material.  With  a  constant  selection  to  be  read,  the  degree  of 
difficulty  will  vary  according  to  the  maturity  of  the  subject's  reading 
habits.  The  first  paragraphs  used  were  easy  enough  to  be  read  by  pupils 
from  the  second  grade  up,  but  first-grade  children  found  them  too  diffi- 


14 


FUND.\]MEXTAL  READING  HABITS 


TABLE  I 
General  Data  for  Silent  Re.ading — All  Subjects" 


Subject 


School  Grade 


Average  Number 

Fixations  per 

Line 


Average 

Duration  of 

Fixations 


Average  Number 

Regressive 

Movements  per 

Line 


Monroe  Com- 
prehension Score 


3 
4 
5 
6 

7 
8 

9 

lO 

II 

12 
13 
14 
15 
16 

17 
18 

19 
20 
21 

22 
23 
24 
25 
26 
27 
28 
29 
30 
31 
32 

33 
34 
35 
36 
37 
38 
39 

40 
41 
42 
43 
44 
45 
46 


IB 
IB 
IB 
IB 
IB 
IB 
IB 
IB 
IB 

I  A 
I  A 
I  A 
I  A 
I  A 
I  A 
I  A 
I  A 
I  A 
I  A 
I  A 
I  A 

II  A 
II  A 
II  A 
HA 
II  A 
II  A 
II  A 
II  A 
II  A 
HA 
HA 
HA 
HA 
HA 
HA 
HA 
HA 
HA 

HI  A 
HI  A 
HI  A 
HI  A 
HI  A 
III  A 
HI  A 


18.0 
18.0 
18.8 

14-5 
18.0 
21.3 
19.0 
27-5 

14.0 
16.5 

21-5 

13-5 


153 
21.3 
16.8 
20.8 
14.8 


12.3 

9-5 
10.6 
10. 1 
10.4 

10.  2 

11 .  I 
10.6 

9-5 

9.6 

II. 4 

10.6 

6.9 

13-8 
13.2 
6.1 
20.5 
II. 4 


3 
4 
6 
6 

9-5 

9 


10.7 


13- 

17. 

14- 
16. 

23- 
13- 
19. 


9.0 
10. 8 
10.9 


II 


•  3 


ic  2 
6.8 
9.8 
II. 7 
18.0 
10.3 
II-3 
^5-4 

10. o 
7-9 
6.9 


9.2 
9.8 
8.3 
7-7 
8.5 
9-3 
9-4 
7-3 
9-4 
II-5 
9-3 
9-5 
8.5 

6.3 
7-5 
8.5 
7.0 

7  ■  7 
8.0 

7-9 


3.8 
5-2 
5-8 
4-5 
3-5 
5-3 
6.5 
4-3 


30 
4.0 
6.8 
4.0 
30 
0.8 

3-3 
6.8 
4.0 
6.0 
3-5 


3-3 
1.6 
2.9 

2-3 
2. 1 
2.0 
2. 1 
2. 1 
1-5 
1-3 

2-3 

2.9 
1-4 

3-8 
3-2 
0.6 
8.5 
3-6 


21 
20 

13 
20 

13 


*  In  computing  all  averages,  data  for  the  first  and  last  lines  were  omitted. 


GROWTH  STAGES  OF  CERTAIN  ELEMENTS  OF  READING         15 
TABLE  I — Continued 


Subject 


School  Grade 


Average  Number 

Fixations  per 

Line 


Average 

Duration  of 

Fixations 


Average  Number 

Regressive 

Movements  per 

Line 


Monroe  Com- 
prehension Score 


47 
48 

49 
50 
51 
52 
53 
54 

55 
56 
57 
S8 
59 
60 
6i 
62 

63 
64 
65 
66 
67 
68 
69 

70 

71 

72 

73 
74 
75 
76 

77 
78 
79 
80 
81 
82 
83 
84 
8S 

86 

87 
88 
89 
90 

91 
92 

93 
94 


III  A 
III  A 
III  A 
III  A 
III  A 
III  A 
III  A 

III  A 

IV  A 
IV  A 
IV  A 
IV  A 
IV  A 
IV  A 
IV  A 
IV  A 
IV  A 
IV  A 
IV  A 
IV  A 
IV  A 
IV  A 
IV  A 

V 
V 
V 
V 
V 
V 
V 
V 
V 
V 
V 
V 
V 
V 
V 
V 

VIA 
VIA 
VIA 
VIA 
VIA 
VIA 
VIA 
VIA 
VIA 


6.1 
10.6 

7-5 
9.2 
9.6 

II. 6 
8.6 

10.6 

6.0 

8.5 
8.7 

6.9 
10.8 

12.5 
6.5 


7-4 
9-4 
6.5 
7-3 


6.4 
6.5 
6.8 

9.6 
6.9 
8.2 
6.0 
6.9 
8.0 

5-3 

6.2 

II. 7 

6.3 
6.1 
6.2 

7-5 
7.0 
5-2 
8.4 


7-7 
5-7 
7.8 
7.2 

8.4 
6.0 
6.0 
9-3 
6.3 
6.0 
6.6 
6.0 
5-6 
6.8 
6.7 

5-4 
5-5 
6.3 
5-8 
7.0 
6.1 
5-6 
6.6 
6.4 
7-3 
6.2 
6.0 
5-6 

5-7 
6.2 

6.5 

5-8 
5-9 
5-0 

6.3 
6.2 
6.0 
5-3 
7-1 
5-9 


0.9 
1.9 
2.  2 
2.8 
3-5 
30 
2.0 
2. 1 


0.5 

2-3 

1-3 
I.  2 

2-5 

3-3 
0.8 
1 .0 

2-3 

1.8 
2.0 


0.7 
0.8 


2.5 
1-3 
1-3 
1 .  2 
1.8 
2.0 
0.4 
I.  2 
3-2 
1-4 

0.  2 
0.7 

0.5 
0.4 

1 .  I 
3-4 

O-S 
1-5 
1.8 

1-7 

1 . 2 

05 
2.0 
0.7 
2.0 


17 
14 
II 
II 

13 
10 

17 


26 
30 
26 
34 


15 
29 
15 
30 
30 
24 
21 


30 


21 
27 
30 
30 
30 
34 
34 
27 
27 
30 
30 
30 
30 
27 
31 
24 

42 
35 
29 
40 
42 
42 
24 
42 

35 


i6 


FUNDAMENTAL  READING  HABITS 
TABLE  I — Continued 


Subject 


95- 
96. 

97- 
98. 
99. 

100. 

lOI  . 

102. 

103. 

104. 

105. 
106. 
107. 
108. 
109. 
no. 
Ill . 

112. 

113- 
114- 
115- 
116. 
117. 
118. 
119. 
120. 

121 . 

122 . 
123. 

124. 
125. 
126. 
127. 
128. 
129. 
130. 

131- 
132. 

134- 

136. 

137- 
138. 

139- 
140. 
141 . 
142. 


School  Grade 


VI  A 
\T  A 
VI  A 
VIA 
VIA 
VIA 
VIA 
VIA 
VI  A 
VI  A 

VII 
VII 
VII 
VII 
VII 
VII 
VII 
VII 

F 
F 
F 
F 
F 
F 
F 
F 
F 
F 
F 

So 
So 
So 
So 
So 
So 
So 
So 
So 
So 
So 
So 

J 
J 
J 
J 
J 
J 
J 


Average  Number 

Fixations  per 

Line 


6.2 


7-5 
7-7 
7.8 

6.3 

7-3 

10. 1 


8.8 
6.8 
8.6 

7.2 
6.4 
6.2 
7.2 
8.8 
4.6 
9.0 
8.6 
6.8 
5-6 
7.0 

40 
5-6 

5-4 
7-4 


4-5 
7.2 

9-4 
50 

7-4 
5-8 

5-3 

5-8 
6.6 
5-6 
4.6 

5-0 
7.6 
4.6 


Average 

Duration  of 

Fixations 


Average  Number 

Regressive 

Movements  per 

Line 


0.8 
2-3 

1.6 
1-3 
1-5 
31 
1.9 


1 .0 
1.6 


1.6 
2.  2 

1.6 
o.  2 
0.6 
0.8 
2 .  7 
0.6 

1-4 
2.6 
0.8 
0.6 
1 .0 

o.  2 
0.4 
0.8 
0.8 
1 .0 
1 .0 
0.4 

2-4 
O.  2 
0.6 

0.8 
0.8 

0.8 
0.4 
0.0 
0.8 
O.  2 
0.8 


Monroe  Com- 
prehension Score 


45 
42 
32, 
39 
29 
40 
:5Z 
38 
18 
32 


GROWTH  STAGES  OF  CERTAIN  ELEMENTS  OF  READING  17 

TABLE  1—Conlinued 


Subject 


143 
144 

145 
146 

147 
148 
149 
150 

152 
153 
154 

15s 
156 
157 
158 
159 
160 
161 
162 
163 
164 
165 
166 

167 
168 
169 
170 
171 
172 
173 
174 
175 
176 
177 
178 
179 


School  Grade, 


J 
J 
J 
J 
J 
J 
J 
J 
J 
J 
J 
J 

Se 
Se 
Se 
Se 
Se 
Se 
Se 
Se 
Se 
Se 
Se 
Se 

Col 
Col 
Col 
Col 
Col 
Col 
Col 
Col 
Col 
Col 
Col 
Col 
Col 


Average  Number 

Fixations  per 

Line 


7.6 
6.0 
4.6 
5-8 
7.0 
6.0 
50 
4.6 

4-4 
4.2 
5-6 
5-8 

7.6 
5-0 
5-0 
6.6 

6.2 
6.8 
4.6 
5-7 
7-4 
7.  2 
6.8 
6.8 

5-6 
4-4 
6.4 
6.0 
6.8 
6.6 
6.0 
3-6 
4.2 
5-6 
6.2 
5-8 


Average 

Duration  of 

Fixations 


6.0 

5-7 
6.3 
5-4 
41 
S-9 
6.5 
5-8 
5-9 
5-  7 
5-8 
5-9 

6.4 
6.0 
5-2 
5-4 
6.3 
5-  7 
6.7 
8.3 
5-5 
6.0 
6.6 
5-4 

6.3 
5-4 
6.2 
6.6 
6.2 
6.0 

6.3 
8.0 

6.5 
5-7 
5-9 
4.8 
6.2 


Average  Number 

Regressive 

Movements  per 

Line 


1.2 
0.0 
0.4 
0.5 
1 .0 


1.6 
0.8 
0.6 
0.0 
0.8 
o.S 
1-4 

1-4 
0.0 

03 


0.4 
0.6 
1.6 
0.6 
0.0 
0.0 
1.6 
0.8 
1 . 2 


o.  2 

O.  2 
0.6 
0.4 
0.8 

1.6 
0.6 


Monroe  Com- 
prehension Score 


FUNDAMENTAL  READING  HABITS 


TABLE  II 
Generax  Data  for  Oral  Reading — All  Subjects" 


Subject 


2 

3 
4 
5 
i8o 
i8r 
6 

7 
8 

9 

lO 

II 

12 

13 

14 

182 

IS 
16 

17 
18 

19 
26 
21 

22 

23 
24 

25 

26 
28 
29 
31 
32 

33 
34 
35 
36 
37 
183 
39 

40 
42 
43 
44 
45 
46 


School  Grade 


IB 
IB 
IB 
IB 
IB 
IB 
IB 
IB 
IB 
IB 
IB 

I  A 
lA 
lA 
lA 
lA 
lA 
lA 
lA 
lA 
I  A 
lA 
I  A 
lA 

II  A 
II  A 
II  A 
II  A 
II  A 
II  A 
II  A 
II  A 
II  A 
II  A 
II  A 
II  A 
II  A 
II  A 
II  A 
II  A 

III  A 
III  A 
III  A 
III  A 
III  A 
III  A 


Average  Number 

Fixations  per 

Line 


22.0 
18.0 
14.4 
18.6 
10.3 
16.3 

11. 7 
13.0 
18.2 
13.2 
25-4 

15-8 
12.8 

15-4 
II  .0 
II. 6 
15-4 
10. o 
14.6 
14.6 
16.  2 
16.8 
12.6 
7.0 

12.8 
10.4 
15-4 
16.0 
9.6 
12.5 

10.  2 
7.0 

11 .  2 
12.4 
13.0 
17.6 

16. 5 
8.0 

8.3 

11. 8 


9 
5 
9 
10 

13 


Average 

Duration  of 

Fixations 


12.3 

133 
12.0 
20.  I 
12.6 

19-3 
13.6 
27.4 
31.2 
19.9 
19.9 

16.4 
II. 9 
12.6 

133 

8.9 

7 
8.2 


22 


12.4 
10.6 

14-3 
10.9 
13.2 
21.9 


8-3 
10.8 

IO-5 

IO-5 

10.8 

7.6 


Average  Niimber 

Regressive 

Movements  per 

Line 


5-2 

5-0 
4.0 

6.4 
1-3 
4.8 

30 
30 
4-4 
2.0 


50 
2.  2 

3-6 
2.4 
2.  2 

3-4 
1.2 
3-8 
4.2 
3-6 
30 
2.4 
1.4 

2.8 
2.0 
3-4 
4-3 
I.  2 


2.4 
1 .0 
1.6 
2.6 
3-4 
50 
4-9 
1 .0 

0.7 


2-3 

2.8 
1 .  2 

I.O 

1-4 
30 


Modified 
Gray  Score 


33 
38 
25 
30 
27 
27 

37 
38 
27 

30 

23 
27 
42 

31 
30 

41 
36 
45 
45 
42 

42 


*  In  computing  all  averages,  data  for  the  first  and  last  lines  were  omitted. 


GROWTH  STAGES  OF  CERTAIN  ELEMENTS  OF  READING         19 
TABLE  II— Continued 


Subject 


School  Grade 


Average  Number 

Fixations  per 

Line 


Average 

Duration  of 

Fixations 


Average  Number 

Regressive 

Movements  per 

Line 


Modified 
Gray  Score 


47. 
48, 

49 
SO. 
SI. 
S2. 
53  ■ 

55' 
S6, 
57 

184 
58. 

185 
59 
60 
61 
62 
64 
6S 
66 
67 
68 
69 

70 
72 
73 
74 
75 
76 

77 

78 

186 

79 
80 
81 
82 

83 
84 
85 

86 

87 
88 

89 
90 

91 
92 

93 
94 


III  A 
III  A 
III  A 
III  A 
III  A 
III  A 

III  A 

IV  A 
IV  A 
IV  A 
IV  A 
IV  A 
IV  A 
IV  A 
IV  A 
IV  A 
IV  A 
IV  A 
IV  A 
IV  A 
IV  A 
IV  A 
IV  A 

V 
V 
V 
V 
V 
V 
V 
V 
V 
V 
V 
V 
V 
V 
V 
V 

VIA 
VIA 
VIA 
VIA 
VIA 
VIA 
VIA 
VIA 
VIA 


9.0 
II  .0 
10.4 

9.1 
13.6 
10.8 

9-3 

12.3 
10.  2 

9-3 

II  .0 

8.8 

8.3 

10.4 

13.2 

10.  2 

7.6 

9.6 

14. 1 

12.7 

8.8 

7.6 

10.6 

8.5 

10.  7 

5-6 

9.0 

8.7 

6.7 

II-3 

II-5 

5-9 

8.5 

9.6 

8.2 

9-7 
8.8 

7-4 
8.3 

8.9 

9-4 

10.  2 

7-7 
8.1 
8.8 

Q.8 

8.1 
8.9 


7.6 
10.5 

9-5 
12.0 

9.6 
10.  7 

7-3 


7-5 
6.7 
6.0 
8.1 
6.9 
7-3 
8.4 
7.0 
8.2 
7.0 
6.9 
6.4 
6.4 
6.0 
7.8 
7-9 

7-9 
7-5 
6.0 
8.4 
7-7 
8.0 
6.8 
7.8 
6.8 


1-7 
1-7 
1.2 
1.8 
4.8 
2.4 
1.8 

3-0 

2.7 

1-4 

2.  2 

1-5 
1-3 
2.4 
2-3 
1.8 
1.6 
2.4 
4-4 
2.3 

1. 1 

0.3 
1.9 

1-3 
1.6 
I .  I 
2.0 

1-7 
0.6 

2-3 

1-7 
0.6 
1.6 
1-5 
1-4 
0.4 
0.9 
I .  I 
1-3 

I .  I 
i.o 
2.6 
1 .0 

1 . 2 


43 
37 
43 
32 

33 
42 
46 

52 
48 
53 
51 
52 
35 
32 
46 
41 
47 
62 

38 
36 
56 

48 
47 

53 
51 
62 

55 
58 
62 

47 
53 
56 
63 
51 
56 
57 
53 
60 

45 

62 

53 
61 

55 
47 
62 

47 
56 
61 


20 


FUXD.\:SIENTAL  READING  HABITS 


TABLE  II — Coniinued 


Subject 


School  Grade 


Average  Number 

Fixations  per 

Line 


Average 

Duration  of 

Fixations 


Average  Number 

Regressive 

Movements  per 

Line 


Modified 
Gray  Score 


95- 
96. 

97- 
98. 
99. 

100. 

lOI  . 

102. 

103. 

104. 

105- 
106. 
107. 
108. 
109. 
no. 
Ill . 

112. 

113- 

114. 

116. 
117. 
118. 
119. 
120. 
121 . 
122. 
123. 

124. 
125. 
126. 
127. 
128. 
129. 
130. 
131- 
132. 

^33- 
134- 

136. 
137- 
138. 
139- 
140. 
141. 
142. 


VIA 
VIA 
VIA 
VIA 
VIA 
VIA 
VI  A 
VIA 
VIA 
VIA 

VII 
VII 
VII 
VII 
VII 
VII 
VII 
VII 

F 
F 
F 
F 
F 
F 
F 
F 
F 
F 
F 

So 
So 
So 
So 
So 
So 
So 
So 
So 
So 
So 

J 
J 
J 
J 
J 
J 
J 


8.8 
8.7 
9-3 
9.0 

9-4 
9-3 
8.5 

10.  2 

11 .  2 

8.2 

7-4 
7.0 
8.2 
9.8 
II. 2 
8.4 
9-4 

9.2 
10.8 

8.4 
9.8 
7.6 
8.2 
9.0 
14.  2 

7-4 
8.6 
9.2 

7-4 
8.8 
7.6 

10.4 
9.0 
7.8 
7.8 

10.6 
8.6 

10.8 
7-4 


8.0 
8.8 
7.8 
7.2 
10.  2 
6.8 


6.2 
7.8 
7.6 

6.3 
6.7 
7-1 
6.2 


8.0 
6.2 

8.2 

6.9 
5-7 
6.5 
7-2 

6.8 
5-5 
7-0 
7-4 
7-2 
6.2 
6.1 
51 
6.4 
6.2 

7-7 

8.1 
6.1 
6.8 
0-4 
5-1 
6.8 

7-7 
6.4 
6.9 
6.2 


6.4 
7-2 
6.1 
6.3 


1 .0 
0.8 
1 .0 
1-4 
30 

1 .0 
2.4 

2. 1 

2.4 
1.6 
0.8 
0.6 
2.0 
2.8 
1-4 
2.6 

1-4 
2.6 
2.0 
2.0 
I.  2 

1 . 2 
1 .0 
5-6 
0.4 
1 . 2 
1.8 


2.  2 
1-4 
1-4 
1-7 
1-4 
0.4 

3-0 
2.  2 
2.4 
1-4 

2.4 
0.4 
0.8 
1-4 


61 
58 
60 
67 
61 
66 
66 


51 
62 


GROWTH  STAGES  OF  CERTAIN  ELEMENTS  OF  READING         21 
TABLE  II— Continued 


Subject 


143 

144 

145 

155 
156 
157 
158 

159 
160 
161 
162 
163 

167 
168 
i6g 
170 

171 

172 

173 
174 
175 
178 
179 


School  Grade 


J 
J 
J 

Se 
Se 
Se 
Se 
Se 
Se 
Se 
Se 
Se 

Col 
Col 
Col 
Col 
Col 
Col 
Col 
Col 
Col 
Col 
Col 


Average  Number 

Fixations  per 

Line 


8.0 

7-3 
6.0 


12.0 
6.6 
6.3 


ID 


8 
8 

9-4 

10.4 

5-4 
9-4 

8.8 
8.0 
7.8 
8.4 
8.4 
8.8 
8.0 
6.0 
6.4 
9-0 
8.0 


Average 

Duration  of 

Fixations 


Average  Number 

Regressive 

Movements  per 

Line 


0.5 


4.0 
0.6 
I  .0 
0.4 
2.  2 
1.8 

3-0 
1-4 
0.8 

1-3 
1 .0 
0.8 
1-4 
0.6 
2.0 
1.6 
0.6 
0.6 
1 .0 
1.4 


Modified 
Gray  Score 


cult;  consequently  two  somewhat  easier  selections  were  used  for  them. 
The  fact  that  the  paragraphs  used  with  the  pupils  in  the  first  grade  were 
somewhat  easier  would  tend  to  reduce  the  steps  in  the  growth  curves 
between  the  first  and  second  grades  by  just  that  amount.  Whatever 
small  error  is  introduced  by  the  use  of  different  materials  tends,  there- 
fore, to  minimize  rather  than  exaggerate  the  apparent  difference  between 
the  first  and  second  grades.  Plate  III  shows  the  selections  used  by  the 
first  grade,  while  Plate  IV  shows  the  paragraphs  read  by  all  other 
subjects. 

All  of  the  growth  curves  in  this  investigation  are  based  on  the  read- 
ing of  the  same  selections,  with  the  exception  of  the  first-grade  pupils, 
as  has  been  previously  mentioned.  The  writer  has  encountered  the 
suggestion  that  if  instead  of  using  identical  materials,  the  subjects  had 
been  given  selections  which  represented  equal  difficulty  for  each  group, 
the  character  of  the  growth  stages  would  have  been  different.  This  is 
undoubtedly  true.  However,  such  a  method  would  have  covered  up 
the  very  element  which  the  investigation  was  designed  to  study.     It  is 


22  FUNDAMENTAL  READING  HABITS 


PLATE  III 

One  day  a  red  hen  found  a  little  wheat 
seed.  She  said  to  the  dog,  "Will  you  plant 
my  wheat  seed?"  The  dog  said,  "No,  I  will 
not  plant  your  little  wheat  seed."  The  hen 
said  to  the  pig,  ^'Will  you  plant  my  wheat 
seed?"  The  pig  said,  "Yes,  I  will  plant  your 
seed." 


A  boy  had  a  little  dog.  One  day  the  dog 
ran  into  the  woods.  The  boy  ran  after  the 
dog.  He  wanted  the  little  dog  to  go  home. 
But  the  dog  would  not  go  home.  The  little 
boy  said,  "I  cannot  go  home  without  my 
dog."    Then  he  began  to  cry. 

Selections    read     by    first-grade    subjects^ral    selection,    above; 
silent  selection,  below. 


1 


GROWTH  STAGES  OF  CERTAIN  ELEMENTS  OF  READING  23 

PLATE  IV 

This  naughty  dog  likes  to  steal  bones.  When 
he  steals  one  he  hides  it  where  no  other  dog 
can  find  it.  He  has  just  stolen  two  bones,  and 
you  must  take  your  pencil  and  make  two  short, 
straight  lines,  to  show  where  they  are  lying  on 
the  ground  near  the  dog.  Draw  them  as 
quickly  as  you  can,  and  then  go  on. 

This  man  is  an  Eskimo  who  lives  in  the  far 
north  where  it  is  cold.  There  has  just  been  a 
big  storm,  and  all  the  ground  is  white  with 
snow.  The  man  has  been  walking  and  has 
made  many  footprints  in  it.  With  your  pencil 
quickly  make  four  of  these  in  the  snow  just 
behind  him. 


One  night  Peter  went  to  bed  early.  It  was 
not  dark.  The  bright  moon  shone  in  at  the 
window.  Peter  could  see  everything  in  the 
room.  All  at  once  he  heard  a  noise.  Peter 
opened  his  eyes.  He  saw  that  the  room  had 
grown  dark.  Something  was  outside  the 
window. 

Tap,  tap,  came  a  noise  at  the  window.  "What 
is  it?"  called  Peter.  'Tt  is  I,  Peter.  Come  to 
the  window."  Peter  climbed  out  of  bed  and 
went  to  the  window.  There  he  saw  a  bird,. 
This  bird  was  so  large  that  his  eyes  were  as 
big  as  saucers. 

"Hello,  Peter,"  said  the  bird.  "Hello,"  said 
Peter.  "Who  are  you?"  "I  am  a  Bird,  Peter. 
I  have  come  to  take  you  to  the  moon.  I  heard 
you^  father  say  that  birds  cannot  fly  to  the 
moon.  But  he  forgot  about  fairy  birds.  I  am 
the  King  of  the  Fairy  Birds." 

Selections   read    by  all  subjects  above  first    grade — oral  selection, 
above;  silent  selection,  below. 


24  FUXD.\]\IENTAL  READING  HABITS 

a  principle  of  experimental  technique  that  all  elements  should  be  kept  as 
constant  as  possible  except  the  one  variable  which  the  investigator  desires 
to  measure.  If  in  this  investigation  materials  of  different  degrees  of 
difficulty  had  been  used  it  would  have  been  impossible  to  determine 
from  the  results  which  differences  were  due  to  type  of  selection  and  which 
to  maturity  of  reading  habits.  The  use  of  the  same  material  throughout, 
above  the  first-grade  level,  was  purposely  planned  in  order  that  the 
variations  in  eye-movements  might  be  indicative  of  only  one  factor — 
maturity  of  reading  habits.  The  effect  of  materials  of  different  degrees 
of  difficulty  was  tested,  however,  and  will  be  reported  in  another 
monograph . 

The  directions  given  to  the  subjects  were  to  "read  this  story  as  you 
ordinarily  do,  to  find  out  what  it  is  about."  Judging  from  the  general 
attitude  and  behavior  of  the  children,  they  did  read  it  in  their  natural 
manner  and  showed  no  confusion  due  to  the  apparatus.  Contrar}'  to 
what  was  expected,  the  first-grade  pupils  were  almost  as  easy  to  photo- 
graph as  the  older  pupils.  In  fact,  they  seemed  much  less  concerned 
about  the  apparatus  than  some  of  the  high-school  boys  who  showed 
great  interest  in  the  mechanical  devices.  The  first-grade  pupils  did  not 
sit  as  still  while  reading,  but  this  was  to  be  expected.  In  a  few  cases 
the  amount  of  head  movement  made  parts  of  the  film  record  difficult 
to  plot  accurately,  while  occasionally  a  record  had  to  be  discarded  alto- 
gether. The  average  time  for  taking  the  photograph,  from  the  time 
the  child  was  seated  before  the  camera  until  he  was  up  again,  was  less 
than  five  minutes.  There  was  little  time,  therefore,  for  discomfort  or 
nervousness  due  to  the  mechanical  operation  of  the  apparatus.  Since 
all  records  were  taken  during  the  last  month  of  the  school  semester,  the 
results  represent  achievement  at  that  period  of  the  school  year. 

In  all  statistical  data  throughout  the  study  the  first  and  last  lines  of 
the  selections  are  omitted,  because  experience  has  shown  that  the  read- 
ing of  these  lines  is  frequently  abnormal.  Throughout  this  part  of  the 
study  the  length  of  line  is  kept  constant,  being  3.5  inches  for  all  para- 
graphs. 

The  materials  of  this  chapter  will  be  presented  in  the  following  order: 
first,  the  growth  stages  in  the  silent-reading  process;  second,  growth 
stages  in  oral  reading;  third,  the  relationship  between  growth  in  oral 
reading  and  scores  on  the  Gray  Oral  Reading  Paragraphs;  fourth,  the 
relationship  between  growth  in  silent  reading  and  scores  on  the  Monroe 
Silent  Reading  Test;  and  fifth,  a  comparison  of  the  growth  curves  in 
silent  reading  for  the  different  elements  studied. 


GROWTH  STAGES  OF  CERTAIN  ELEMENTS  OF  READING  25 

GROWTH  IN   SILENT   READING 

Development  in  span  of  recognition. — If  the  reader  will  note  the 
number  of  seconds  required  to  read  silently  the  series  of  letters, 
a  -  X  -  w  -  0  -  b  -  r  -  y  -  n  -  q  -  h,  and  will  then  note  the  time  required 
for  reading  the  series  of  four-letter  words,  nine  -  cars  -  book  -  lamp  - 
look  -  slow  -  sick  -  boys  -  ball  -  with,  he  will  find  that  it  requires  little, 
if  any,  more  time  to  read  the  ten  words  than  to  read  the  ten  letters. 
The  reason  for  this  is  that  a  mature  reader  does  not  look  at  the  individual 
letters  making  up  a  word  but,  rather,  takes  in  a  whole  word  at  a  single 
''preception  just  as  easily  as  a  single  letter.  The  size  and  character  of 
his  recognition-span  are  such  that  it  is  as  easy  to  perceive  a  word  as  a 
letter.  If  the  words  are  arranged  in  a  meaningful  order,  as  in  a  sentence, 
it  becomes  even  easier  to  read  ten  words  than  to  read  unrelated  letters. 
One  of  the  characteristics  of  a  mature  reader  is  the  possession  of  a  span 
of  recognition  which  enables  him  to  recognize  as  a  single  unit  not  only  a 
word  of  four  letters  but  even  a  group  of  words.  The  recognition  unit 
in  reading  is  defined  by  the  amount  of  printed  material  that  can  be 
recognized  in  a  single  span  of  attention.  If  the  reader  will  turn  to 
Plates  I  and  II  it  will  be  seen  that  the  mature  reader  in  Plate  II  was  able 
to  recognize  the  nine  words  in  the  second  line  with  4  eye-fixations,  while 
in  the  fifth  line  only  3  fixations  were  necessary  to  recognize  the  same 
number  of  words.  This  subject  has  a  wide  recognition-span.  The  first- 
grade  pupil  shown  in  Plate  I,  on  the  other  hand,  has  a  very  narrow 
recognition-span.  For  this  subject  19  fixations  were  required  in  reading 
the  second  line,  while  the  fifth  line  required  32  fixations.  The  difficulty 
which  this  pupil  experiences  is  that  he  has  not  yet  attained  a  sufficient 
degree  of  familiarity  with  printed  words  to  be  able  to  recognize  them 
without  a  minute  analysis.  In  reading  the  three  words  "cannot  go 
home  '  in  the  fifth  line  20  fixations  were  required.  If  the  serial  order  of 
the  fixations  is  followed  from  number  9  to  number  27  it  will  be  noticed 
that  this  pupil  simply  oscillated  back  and  forth,  examining  the  words 
in  great  detail.  This  oscillating  reaction  is  a  symptom  of  mental  con- 
fusion, which  shows  that  the  pupil  is  not  grasping  the  material  in  large 
units  but  rather  is  carrying  on  a  more  or  less  detailed  analysis  which  is 
quite  the  opposite  of  the  ordinary  process  of  reading.  Before  this  pupil 
can  become  a  mature  reader  it  will  be  necessary  for  him  to  develop  a 
span  of  recognition  which  is  much  wider  and  which  will  resemble  that 
of  the  college  student  in  Plate  II. 

A  measure  of  the  span  of  recognition  may  be  obtained,  therefore, 
from  the  average  number  of  fixations  per  line  required  in  reading.     As 


26 


FUNDAMENTAL  READING  HABITS 


the  number  of  fixations  per  line  decreases,  the  width  of  the  recognition- 
span  increases.  The  development  of  this  element  during  the  school 
period  will  be  studied  by  ascertaining  the  decrease  in  the  grade  medians 
for  the  average  number  of  fixations  per  line. 

The  average  number  of  fixations  per  line  and  the  school  grade  for 
each  of  the  one  hundred  and  seventy-nine  subjects  from  whom  silent 
reading  records  were  secured  are  given  in  Table  III,  which  should  be 

TABLE  III 
Growth  Stages  for  Average  Number  of  Fixations  per  Line  in  Silent  Reading 


Average 
Number  of 

School  Grade 

Total 

Fixations  per 
Line 

IB 

lA 

II 

III 

IV 

V 

VI 

VII 

F 

So 

J 

Se 

Col 

3-0-3- 
4.0-4. 
50-5. 
6.0-6. 

0.  . 

I 

2 

4 
6 

I 

0.  .  . 

I 
I 
3 
3 

2 

I 

2 

5 
4 

6 
7 
3 
3 

I 

3 

5 
3 

12 

0.  .  . 

2 

7 
2 

3 

I 

I 

2 

5 
8 

3 

I 
4 

3 

25 

43 
29 
18 

0.  . . 

2 

I 
3 

4 
4 

2 

I 

7 
2 

3 

I 
I 

I 

7 . 0—7 . 

0.  . . 

I 

8  0-8 

0 

9.0-9. 

lO.O-IO 

3 
6 

3 

I 
2 

I 

1 1 

.0. . 

I 

10 

II .0-11 

.0 .  . 

I 

6 

I  2. 0-12 

.0  .  . 

2 

13-0-13 
14. 0-14 
150-15 
16    0—16 

.9.. 
.9.. 
.9. . 
.9. . 
.9.. 
.9.. 
.9.. 

I 

I 

4 

I 
2 

I 
2 
2 
2 

3 
3 
2 

2 

17. 0-17 
18. 0-18 

I 

4 

I 

19. 0-19 

20 . o-up 

3 

I 

6 

Total..  .  . 

9 

12 

18 

IS 

15 

16 

19 

8 

II 

12 

19 

12 

13 

179 

Med 

an.. 

18.6 

iS-5 

10.7 

8.9 

7-3 

6.9 

7-3 

6.8 

7.2 

5-8 

5-5 

6.4 

5-9 

\ 


read  as  follows:  One  subject,  a  college  student,  made  an  average  number 
of  fixations  per  line  falling  in  the  interval  of  3.0-3.9;  twelve  subjects 
made  averages  falling  in  the  interval  of  4.0-4.9,  and  of  this  group  one  was 
a  Freshman,  two  were  Sophomores,  six  were  Juniors,  one  was  a  Senior, 
and  two  were  college  students,  etc.  The  medians  for  each  school  grade 
are  given  in  the  last  line  of  the  table,  the  median  for  Grade  I  B  being 
18.6,  for  Grade  I A  15.5,  for  the  second  grade  10.7,  etc.  Figure  i  shows 
the  growth  curve  for  these  grade  medians.  From  this  figure  ic  is  evident 
than  there  is  a  very  rapid  growth  in  span  of  recognition  up  to  the  end 
of  the  fourth  grade;  beyond  this  the  rate  of  growth  is  less  pronounced, 


GROWTH  STAGES  OF  CERTAIX  ELEMENTS  OF  READING 


20-up 


IB  lA 


Fig.  I. — Growth  stages  for  average  number  of  fixations  per  line  in  silent  reading. 
School  grade  shown  on  horizontal  axis;  average  number  of  fixations  per  3.5  inch  line 
shown  on  vertical  axis. 


28  I-^UNDAMENTAL  READING  HABITS 

with  the  exception  of  a  notable  increase  during  the  Sophomore  and 
Junior  years  in  the  high  school. 

The  reader  should  note  that  the  nature  of  the  growth  curve  for  this, 
as  for  other  elements  of  reading,  is  biased  by  the  type  of  training  which 
the  school  has  given.  It  cannot  be  assumed  that  the  particular  curves 
which  appear  are  necessarily  the  most  desirable  forms  of  growth  or  even 
the  natural  forms.  Different  emphases  upon  the  vaiious  elements  at 
different  levels  of  the  school  period  might  produce  a  considerable  change 
in  the  rate  of  growth  at  those  points.  The  growth  curves  shown  repre- 
sent the  stages  of  development  of  the  various  elements  of  reading  under 
the  present  school  conditions.  The  variations  of  individual  cases  from 
the  grade  medians  as  exhibited  in  Table  III  show  that  some  pupils  take 
a  very  different  route  in  their  progress  toward  maturity, 

A  careful  examination  of  the  growth  curve  in  Figure  i  will  reveal  three 
definite  tendencies:  first,  a  very  rapid  growth  during  the  first  four  school 
years;  second,  a  plateau  extending  through  the  fifth,  sixth,  seventh,  and 
Freshman  years;  and  third,  a  second  rise  during  the  middle  high-school 
years.  It  is  clear  from  the  figure  that  the  chief  development  in  span  of 
recognition  comes  early  in  the  school  course.  The  child  proceeds  a 
long  distance  toward  maturity  in  this  element  before  he  enters  the  fifth 
grade.  While  a  small  increase  occurs  during  the  fifth  grade,  it  is  only 
one- fourth  as  great  as  the  increase  during  the  preceding  year.  It  is  a 
significant  fact  that  the  fourth  grade  marks  the  turning-point  in  this 
element.  The  radical  change  in  the  curve  of  growth  at  the  end  of  the 
fourth  grade  demands  an  explanation,  either  in  terms  of  the  element  itself 
or  in  terms  of  the  school  reading  situation.  It  is  clear  that  the  limit  of 
growth  in  span  of  recognition  has  not  been  reached  in  the  fourth  grade. 
The  later  rise  in  the  curve  shows  that  the  high-school  medians  above 
the  Freshman  year  exceed  the  highest  score  up  to  the  fourth-grade  level. 
If  mature  habits  of  reading  require  a  further  growth  in  span  of  recogni- 
tion, why  does  not  the  curve  make  a  continuous  rise  up  to  the  highest 
median  ? 

A  possible  answer  to  this  question  is  found  in  the  nature  of  the  school 
work  during  the  fifth^  sixth,^  seventh,  and  Freshman  years.  Up  to  the 
fend  of  the  fourth  grade  the  principal  emphasis  of  the  school  is  placed 
upon  the  subject  of*reading.  The  reading  which  the  child  does  is  more 
or  less  of  the  same  type  and  for  the  same  purpose.  Beginning  in  the 
fifth  grade  there  is  an  increasing  amount  of  time  given  to  a  variety  of 
content  subjects.  The  character  of  the  demand  upon  the  child's  read- 
ing habits  changes.     A  greater  emphasis  is  placed  upon  a  type  of  study 


GROWTH  STAGES  OF  CERTAIN  ELEMENTS  OF  READING  29 

which  is  quite  different  from  the  former  reading  which,  for  the  greater 
part,  was  concerned  with  materials  easy  of  comprehension.  As  long 
as  the  reading  is  of  the  same  general  character,  a  regular  increase  in 
the  elements  of  the  process  would  be  expected.  When  the  purpose  of 
reading  is  changed  and  the  different  types  of  material  are  taken  up,  the 
attention  of  the  pupil  must  be  centered  on  these  new  variations,  while 
the  old  elements  are  in  a  measure  neglected.  For  example,  when  a 
pupil  is  given  a  text  in  algebra  or  foreign  language  his  previous  habit 
of  using  a  wide  recognition  unit  with  simple  story  material  is  entirely 
inadequate  for  the  mastery  of  this  new  content.  Meanings  in  algebra 
and  foreign  language  are  not  as  clear  as  meanings  in  descriptive  geogra- 
phy or  fiction.  The  change  from  the  formal  subjects  of  the  elementary 
period  to  the  varied  content  of  the  high-school  course  seriously  inter- 
rupts the  development  of  the  span  of  recognition,  the  extent  of  the  inter- 
ference being  disclosed  by  the  plateau  in  Figure  i . 

The  rise  in  the  curve  during  the  Sophomore  and  Junior  years  suggests 
that  the  pupil  has  by  that  time  become  adjusted  to  the  various  types  of 
new  material  and  to  the  new  study  habits  required  for  high-school  work. 
The  heavy  reading  requirements  of  literature  and  history  stimulate  the 
further  development  of  a  wide  span  of  recognition.  The  drop  in  the 
Senior  year  may  be  accidental  or  it  may  be  the  compensating  result  of 
some  other  type  of  adjustment.  In  any  case,  the  median  remains  at  a 
higher  level  than  during  the  period  of  the  plateau. 

jjs.  study  of  eye-movement  records  reveals  the  fact  that  the  number 
of  fixations  per  line  varies  in  the  reading  of  an  individual  subject.  The 
size  of  the  recognition-span  is  evidently  greater  at  some  points  than 
others.  Evidence  is  at  hand  which  indicates  that  the  relative  difficulty 
of  the  material  read  or  the  particular  aim  of  the  reader  has  a  direct 
influence  upon  the  width  of  the  span  of  recognition.  It  was  for  the 
purpose  of  eliminating  such  variable  factors  that  the  same  selections  and 
the  same  directions  for  reading  were  used  throughout  this  experiment. 
However,  even  in  the  reading  of  a  single  selection  the  number' of  fixations 
per  line  varies.  If  a  subject  reads  a  complete  selection  with  an  average 
of  8  fixations  per  line,  but  reads  one  of  the  lines  with  4  fixations,  the 
question  arises  as  to  whether  his  span  of  recognition  is  equal  to  one- 
eighth  or  one-fourth  of  the  length  of  the  line.  The  answer  to  the  ques- 
tion involves  a  definition  of  terms.  ■^The  average  number  of  fixations 
per  line  gives  a  measure  of  the  normally  used  recognition-span.)  This 
normal  spar/may  be  considerably  less  than  the  possible  maximum.^  In 
certain  portions  of  a  selection  a  variety  of  causes  may  co-operate  in 


30 


FUNDAMENTAL  READING  HABITS 


making  the  reading  especially  easy  or  difficult,  with  a  corresponding 
reduction  or  increase  in  the  number  of  fixations.  The  element  measured 
by  the  growth  curve  in  Figure  i  is  the  average,  normally  used  span  of 
recognition.  For  a  study  of  reading,  this  normal  span  is  of  greater 
significance  than  the  possible  maximum  span.  The  recognition  unit 
which  has  been  frequently  measured  in  experimental  psychology  by  a 
simple  tachistoscopic  apparatus  has  been  the  maximum  recognition  unit. 
The  reader  should  not  confuse  this  measure  with  that  secured  by  finding 
the  average  number  of  fixations  per  line.  The  former  shows  the  limits 
of  the  recognition  unit;  the  latter  shows  the  normal  recognition-span 
used  in  reading. 

In  the  total  complex  process  of  reading  the  size  of  the  average 
recognition-span  is  a  very  significant  element.  \  The  ultimate  goal  of 
reading  is  to  secure  meaning  from  the  printed  page  in  large  thought 
units.  The  smallest  possible  unit  of  thought  is  the  word,  while  the  most 
common  units  are  phrases.  As  long  as  a  reader  is  unable  to  grasp  these 
thought  elements  in  a  single  recognition  his  mental  processes  are  inter- 
rupted by  the  necessity  of  piecing  together  the  material  to  make  up 
meaningful  elements.  It  is  perfectly  evident  from  an  examination  of 
Plate  I  that  this  first-grade  reader  is  not  dealing  with  thought  units,  since 
a  large  part  of  her  effort  is  taken  up  with  an  analysis  of  the  words.  Until 
she  reaches  the  stage  of  maturity  where  she  can  recognize  the  word  or 
phrase  as  a  whole  and  in  an  automatic  manner,  she  will  not  be  able  to 
give  her  full  attention  to  the  meaning.  The  college  student  in  Plate  II 
has  a  recognition-span  which  is  wide  enough  to  deal  with  whole  thought 
units,  making  possible  a  type  of  reading  in  which  interpretation  is  the 
dominant  element  in  consciousness  with  only  a  minimum  of  attention 
to  the  recognition  process.  The  immature  reader  must  piece  together 
his  small  units  of  recognition  with  much  the  same  difficulty  which  a 
pedestrian  would  experience  in  getting  a  general  idea  of  the  geography 
of  a  city  by  walking  up  and  down  the  streets  between  the  sky-scrapers; 
while  the  mature  reader  has  so  far  mastered  his  recognition  unit  that 
his  interpretation  of  meaning  could  be  compared  with  a  bird's-eye  view 
of  the  city  from  an  airplane.  The  significance  of  a  wide  recognition- 
span  is  that  it  relieves  the  mind  of  a  detailed  form  of  word-analysis 
and  makes  possible  the  focusing  of  consciousness  upon  the  process  of 
interpretation. 

Growth  in  rate  of  recognition. — It  has  just  been  shown  that  the  width 
of  the  span  of  recognition  increases  as  reading  habits  become  more 
mature.     If  the  reader  will  turn  again  to  Plates  I  and  II  he  will  see  that 


GROWTH  STAGES  OF  CERTAIN  ELEMENTS  OF  READING 


31 


the  college  student  not  only  covered  a  large  unit  of  material  at  each 
fixation  but  that  the  average  duration  of  her  fixations  was  considerably- 
shorter  than  that  of  the  first-grade  pupil.  The  rate  of  recognition, 
regardless  of  the  size  of  the  recognition  unit,  becomes,  therefore,  an 
important  factor  in  reading.  The  growth  in  rate  of  recognition,  as 
measured  by  the  average  djuration  of  fixations,  is  shown  in  Table  IV  and 
Figure  2.     Table  IV  giv^es  the  average  duration  of  fixations  in  twenty- 

TABLE  IV 

Growth  Stages  for  Average  Duration  of  Fixation  Pauses  in  Silent  Reading 


Average 

DuitATION  OF 

Fixation 

Pauses 

IN  Twenty- 

School  Grade 

Total 

fifths  OF  A 
Second 

IB 

lA 

II 

III 

IV 

V 

\T 

VII 

F 

So 

J 

Se 

Col 

3-<^3 
4.0-4 

5- 0-5 
6  0-6 

0.  . . 

0.  . . 

I 

4 
6 

2 

12 

5 

5 
6 

I 

3 

8 

4 
52 
60 

Q.  .  . 

.... 

2 

8 

3 

I 
I 

6 

8 
2 

II 

7 
I 

4 
3 

I 

5 
4 
I 

Q.  .  . 

I 

I 
4 
3 

7 
I 
I 
I 

3 
S 
4 
3 

7.0-7 
8  0-8 

Q 

17 
10 

I 

I 

9-ct-9 

2 

4 
3 

I 

I 

IS 
6 

I 

4 
I 

1 2.0-1 

2 
I 

I 
2 

I 
I 

2 

14. 0-14. 9. . 
15. 0-15. 9.. 
16. 0-16. 9. . 
17. 0-17. 9. . 
18. 0-18. 9. . 
19. 0-19. 9... 
20. o-up. . .  . 

I 

I 

I 

I 

2 

I 

I 

I 

I 

Total  .  .  . 

9 

12 

18 

IS 

15 

16 

19 

8 

11 

12 

19 

12 

13 

179 

Mec 

lian.. 

16.5 

10.8 

9.1 

7-9 

6.7 

6.3 

5-9 

6.0 

6.1 

6.2 

5-6 

6.2 

6.3 

fifths  of  a  second  and  the  school  grade  for  each  subject.  It  shows  that 
the  median  of  the  average  duration  of  fixations  for  Grade  IB  is  16.5 
twenty-fifths  of  a  second;  for  Grade  I  A  10.8  twenty-fifths;  for  the 
second  grade  9.1  twenty-fifths,  etc.  Figure  2  presents  these  grade 
medians  graphically.  The  curve  shows  a  rapid  increase  in  rate  of  fixa- 
tion up  to  the  end  of  the  fourth  grade,  with  a  continued  but  smaller 
increase  on  through  the  sixth  grade.  From  that  point  no  higher  median 
is  observed  with  the  exception  of  that  of  the  high-school  Juniors.  The 
median  for  adults  is  the  same  as  that  for  the  fifth  grade. 


32 


FUNDAMENTAL  READING  HABITS 


IB  lA 


Fig.  2. — Growth  stages  for  average  duration  of  fLxation  pauses  in  silent  reading. 
School  grade  shown  on  horizontal  axis;  average  duration  of  fixation  pause  shown  on 
vertical  axis. 


GROWTH  STAGES  OF  CERTAIN  ELEMENTS  OF  READING         33 

These  medians  show  that  growth  in  speed  of  recognition  proceeds 
in  quite  a  different  manner  from  growth  in  span  of  recognition.  The 
fact,  as  exhibited  by  Table  IV,  that  fifty-two  subjects  were  able  to  reach 
an  average  fixation  time  of  5  twenty-fifths  of  a  second,  while  only  four 
subjects  were  able  to  make  a  shorter  average  indicates  that  the  limit  of 
fixation  time  is  about  5  twenty-fifths.  Out  of  the  one  hundred  and  ten 
subjects  in  the  grades  above  the  fourth,  only  nine  failed  to  raise  their 
average  fixation  time  to  the  level  of  6  twenty-fifths  of  a  second.  From 
these  data  it  is  evident  that  a  speed  of  fixation  of  from  5  to  6  twenty- 
fifths  of  a  second  satisfies  the  demands  of  maturity  in  reading.  It  is 
also  evident  that  it  is  entirely  possible  to  reach  this  level  by  the  end  of 
the  fourth  grade.  Rate  of  recognition,  therefore,  is  one  element  of 
reading  which  can  be  carried  to  the  level  of  maturity  very  early  in  the 
school  period.  The  significance  of  the  duration  of  fixations  will  be  dis- 
cussed in  greater  detail  in  the  following  chapters,  where  illustrative 
records  of  individual  cases  will  be  introduced. 

Rhythmic  progression  along  printed  lines. — The  third  element  of 
reading,  for  which  a  growth  curve  was  determined,  is  that  of  rhythmic 
progression  along  the  printed  lines.  In  the  eye-movement  record  of 
a  mature  reader  it  will  be  seen  that  the  eye  progressed  across  the  lines 
with  a  rhythmic  swing,  making  approximately  the  same  number  of 
fixations  per  line  with  few  or  no  backward  movements.  In  contrast 
with  this  the  immature  reader  moves  forward  a  few  fixations,  then  back- 
ward to  refixate  upon  some  word  which  was  not  clearly  recognized,  then 
forward  and  soon  back  again  in  the  reverse  direction.  This  oscillation 
of  eye-movements  back  and  forth  along  the  lines  indicates  that  the  reader 
is  confused  and  is  unable  to  proceed  in  regular  order  along  the  lines. 
This  irregularity  in  reading  procedurjC  can  be  measured  by  the  average 
number  of  regressive  movements,  per  line.  |  Since  regular,  rhythmic 
progress  along  the  lines  of  print  is  possible  only  through  the  develop- 
ment of  habits  of  sure  recognition,  the  number  of  regressive  movements 
required  in  reading  furnishes  an  index  of  another  element  of  the  recogni- 
tion process. 

The  relationship  between  average  number  of  regressive  movements 
per  line  and  school  grade  is  exhibited  by  the  data  in  Table  V  and  the 
curve  in  Figure  3.  Table  V,  which  should  be  read  in  the  same  manner 
as  Table  III,  shows  that  the  median  pupil  in  Grade  I  B  made  an  average 
of  5.1  regressive  movements  per  line;  in  Grade  I  A  an  average  of  4.0; 
in  Grade  II  an  average  of  2.3,  etc.  The  curve  of  growth  in  Figure  3 
makes  a  very  rapid  rise  during  the  first  four  grades;   a  notable  lack  of 


34 


FUND.A3IENTAL  READING  HABITS 


progress  during  Grades  V,  VI,  and  VII;  with  a  second  rise  during  the 
first  two  high-school  years.  In  general  form  the  curve  is  similar  to 
that  for  span  of  recognition.  The  fact  that  all  the  medians  for  the 
grades  beyond  the  seventh  are  distinctly  higher  than  any  medians  below 
that  point  indicates  that  the  development  of  regular,  rhythmic  eye- 
movements  is  one  element  of  reading  toward  which  high-school  and 
college  training  directly  contributes.  It  also  shows  that  the  possibility 
of  increased  efficiency  at  the  upper  levels  of  the  school  period  is  consider- 

TABLE  V 

Growth  Stages  for  Average  Nximber  of  Regressive  AIovements  per  Line  in 

Silent  Reading 


A\ERAGE 
Nl'MBER  OF 

School  Grade 

Total 

Movements 
PER  Line 

IB 

lA 

II 

III 

IV 

v 

VI 

VII 

F 

So 

J 

Se 

Col 

4..  .  .  . 

I 
I 
4 
3 
3 
I 
I 
I 

4 
4 
2 

3 

I 
I 

3 
2 
6 

I 
I 
I 
2 

5 
3 

7 
3 

I 

3 

2 
2 

I 

5 

2 

I 
I 
I 

4 
5 
2 

I 

7 
8 

3 
I 

5 
3 
2 
2 

7 
5 

I 

29 
40 
31 

22 

I 

I 
2 
2 
6 
2 
2 
2 

2   O— 2 

A 

20 

2.5-2 

3-5-3 
4.0-4 

4-5-4 
5  0-5 

5-5-5 
6. 0—6 

I 

3 

I 

3 

7 
10 

A.  .  .  . 

I 

9 

4.... 
9.... 
4.... 
9.... 
4..  .  .  . 

2 

6 

4 

.... 

2 

I 
2 

I 

6.5-6 
7.0-7 

7-5-7 
8.0-8 

9.... 
4.... 
9.  . .  . 

3 

4.  .  .  . 

8-5-U] 

3 

I 

Total.... 

9 

12 

18 

IS 

15 

16 

19 

8 

II 

12 

19 

12 

13 

179 

Me 

dian. . 

51 

4.0 

2-3 

1.8 

1-4 

1-3 

1.6 

1-5 

I.O 

0.7 

0.7 

0.7 

o.S 

ably  greater  for  this  habit  than  for  that  of  duration  of  fixations  which 
was  plotted  in  Figure  2. 

There  are  several  tx-pes  of  regressive  movements  which  are  produced 
by  as  many  different  causes.  The  most  common  regressive  movement 
occurs  at  the  beginning  of  a  line  where  the  return  sweep  of  the  eye  has 
failed  to  carry  the  fixation  back  to  the  first  word  in  the  line  and  an 
additional  regressive  movement  is  recjuired  to  make  the  initial  part  of 
the  fine  clear.  This  type  of  regressive  movement  persists  up  to  the 
more  mature  stages  of  reading. 


GROWTH  STAGES  OF  CERTAIN  ELEMENTS  OF  READING 


35 


o-S 


6-5  - 
7.0  — 

7-5  — 


S-S-up 


IB  lA 


J L 


J I I I L 


II     III 


IV 


VI       VII 


So. 


J. 


Se.       Col. 


Fig.  3. — Growth  stages  for  average  number  of  regressive  movements  per  line  in 
silent  reading.  School  grade  shown  on  horizontal  axis;  average  number  of  regressive 
movements  per  line  shown  on  vertical  axis. 


36  FUNDAMENTAL  READING  HABITS 

A  second  type  of  regressive  movement  appears  in  the  records  of  a 
number  of  mature  readers  who  continually  try  to  make  as  few  fixations 
per  line  as  possible.  In  their  effort  to  grasp  a  larger  unit  in  a  single  eye- 
fixation  they  occasionally  overreach  their  maximum  span  and  find  it 
necessary  to  make  a  backward  eye-movement  to  clarify  the  meaning. 

While  in  such  cases  regressive  movements  are  characteristic  of 
rather  mature  reading,  the  most  mature  subjects  have  reached  a  stage 
where  they  do  not  overreach  their  capacity  and  consequently  have 
few,  if  any,  regressive  movements.  The  presence  of  a  few  regressive 
movements  caused  by  an  effort  to  attain  a  wider  recognition  unit  may 
be  the  necessary  accompaniment  of  certain  stages  of  growth  in  the  span 
of  recognition. 

A  third  type  of  regressive  movement  is  caused  by  lack  of  word- 
knowledge.  In  the  paragraphs  used  in  this  study,  even  the  compara- 
tively simple  words  in  the  first-grade  selection  caused  many  regressive 
movements  for  some  of  the  pupils.  Pre\  ious  investigations  have  shown 
that  high-school  and  adult  subjects  will  react  in  the  same  manner  pro- 
vided sufficiently  difficult  words  are  introduced. 

A  fourth  type  of  regressive  movement  consists  of  a  random  oscilla- 
tion of  the  eye  with  no  apparent  plan  on  the  part  of  the  reader.  This 
type  of  behavior  has  been  appropriately  named  a  "confusion  period." 
The  reader  fails  to  get  a  clear  perception  of  the  meaning  and  accordingly 
sets  up  a  series  of  eye-fixations  which  move  back  and  forth  over  the 
area,  causing  difficulty.  This  type  of  eye-movement  may  occur  in  the 
beginning  stages  of  reading  where  it  shows  lack  of  ability  to  grasp  proper 
units  of  recognition,  and  it  may  occur  in  the  later  stages  of  reading 
where  the  reading  gives  way  to  analysis  of  some  kind.  Regressions  in 
the  latter  case  are  signs  of  disintegration  rather  than  immaturity. 

Four  kinds  of  regressive  movements  have  been  described,  all  of  which 
are  characteristic  of  more  or  less  immature  reading.  The  curve  of 
growth  in  Figure  3  shows  clearly  that  the  elimination  of  these  regressive 
movements  is  not  easily  accomplished,  but  that  growth  continues  up 
to  the  highest  level  of  maturity. 

GROWTH   IN   ORAL   READING 

The  three  growth  curves  which  have  just  been  exhibited  were  based 
upon  silent-reading  records.  It  will  be  a  matter  of  interest  to  determine 
whether  the  growth  curves  as  exhibited  by  oral  reading  are  in  any  respect 
different.  Accordingly,  a  series  of  growth  curves  will  be  presented 
based  upon  the  oral  reading  records  of  one  hundred  and  sixty-four 
subjects. 


GROWTH  STAGES  OF  CERTAIN  ELEMENTS  OF  READING 


37 


Table  VI  and  f'igure  4  show  the  relationship  between  average 
number  of  fixations  per  line  and  school  grade.  The  median  for  the 
IB  grade  is  16.0;  for  the  I  A  grade,  14.5;  for  the  second  grade,  12.0, 
etc.  The  curve  in  Figure  4  shows  a  rapid  development  of  this  element 
during  the  fourth  grade,  followed  by  a  rapid  increase  during  the  fifth 
grade.  Beyond  the  fifth  grade  the  curve  shows  no  pronounced  increase 
except  during  the  Sophomore  and  Junior  years.     The  broken  line  in 

TABLE  VI 
Growth  Stages  for  Average  Number  or  Fixations  per  Line  in  Oral  Reading 


Average 
Number  of 

School  Grade 

Fixations 
PER  Line 

IB 

lA 

II 

III 

IV 

V 

VI 

VII 

F 

So 

J 

Se 

Col 

TOTAI 

30-3. 
4.0-4. 

S-O-S- 
6.0-6. 

g.  .  . 

0 .  .  . 

0.  .  . 

2 

I 
I 

6 

3 

I 
2 

I 
2 

I 

2 

2 

I 

7 

I 

3 

7 
21 

0.  .  . 

.... 

2 
3 
4 

I 

7.0-7. 
8.0-8. 

0 .  .  . 

I 

I 
2 
I 
2 
2 

3 

I 

2 
3 
4 

2 

2 

3 

4 
I 

2 

I 
I 

2 
8 
6 

2 

I 

2 

3 
2 

I 

2 

3 
4 

I 

5 
2 

I 
3 

Q.  .  . 

40 

25 
22 
12 

9-0-9- 
10. 0-10 
I I . 0— I I 

0.  .  . 

.9.. 
.9.  . 
.9.. 
.9.. 
.9.. 
.9.  . 
.9.. 
.  0 .  . 

I 

I 

2 

I 

I 

I 

2 
2 

2 

3 

2 

12.0— 12 

I 

8 

13 -0-13 
14.0^14 

iS-o-iS 
16.0— 16 

6 

I 

5 
4 

S 
I 

I 
2 

I 

17. 0-17 
18  0-18 

.9.  . 
.0 .  . 

3 

3 

19. 0-19 
20 . 0— up 

2 

2 

Total.... 

II 

13 

16 

13 

16 

16 

19 

8 

II 

II 

10 

9 

II 

164 

Med] 

an.. 

16.0 

14-5 

12.0 

10.4 

10.3 

8.7 

8.9 

8.7 

9-1 

8.3 

8.0 

9-3 

8.4 

Figure  4  reproduces  the  curve  for  the  average  number  of  fixations  per  line 
in  silent  reading.  A  comparison  of  the  two  curves  shows  that  a  wider 
recognition-span  is  maintained  throughout  in  silent  reading,  except 
during  the  first  grade.  No  significance  should  be  attached  to  the 
crossing  of  the  two  curves  just  above  the  first  grade,  for  two  reasons. 
The  first  is  the  fact  that  the  distribution  of  the  individual  averages 
during  the  first  grade  shows  such  a  wide  variation  that  the  significance 
of  the  exact  median  is  small.  The  second  reason  for  attaching  no  special 
importance  to  the  crossing  of  the  curves  is  the  fact  that  supplementary 
data  indicate  that  the  oral  medians  in  Grades  I  B  and  I  A  should  be 


^904-^ 


FUNDAMENTAL  READING  HABITS 


20-Up 


IBIA       II       III       IV        V        \T      VII       F.        So.        J.       Se.      Col. 

Fig.  4. — Growth  stages  for  average  number  of  fixations  per  line  in  oral  reading. 
School  grade  shown  on  horizontal  axis;  average  number  of  fixations  per  line  shown  on 
vertical  axis.     (Broken  line  reproduces  corresponding  silent  reading  curve.) 


GROWTH  STAGES  OF  CERTAIN  ELEMENTS  OF  READING         39 

considerably  lower  than  the  particular  medians  shown  in  Figure  4. 
For  example,  records  taken  five  weeks  earlier  of  fifteen  pupils  from  these 
same  groups  showed  a  median  number  of  fixations  per  line  for  oral  read- 
ing of  22  in  Grade  I  B,  and  of  17  in  Grade  I  A.  The  further  fact  that 
some  of  the  children  had  read  the  "Little  Red  Hen"  story  shortly  before 
the  test  may  be  another  reason  for  the  higher  curve  in  oral  reading  at 
this  point. 

The  principal  significance  of  a  comparison  of  the  oral  and  silent 
curves  lies  in  the  fact  that  throughout  the  grades,  at  least  above  the 
first,  the  silent-reading  process  makes  possible  or  stimulates  broader 
recognition  units,  while  in  oral  reading  the  use  of  these  wide  fixations 
is  inhibited.  This  furnishes  evidence  that  there  is  a  fundamental 
difiference  between  the  oral-  and  silent-reading  processes.  In  oral  read- 
ing some  attention  must  be  given  to  each  word  as  it  is  pronounced.  The 
necessity,  on  the  part  of  the  voice,  of  dealing  with  word  units  evidently 
carries  over  into  the  recognition  habits,  causing  a  smaller  recognition- 
span  than  in  silent  reading. 

With  the  exception  of  Grades  I  and  IV  the  oral  curve  follows  the 
same  general  trend  as  that  of  the  silent  process,  only  at  a  lower  level. 
The  relatively  small  social  importance  of  oral  reading  at  the  higher 
levels  would  lead  one  to  expect  to  find  no  further  increases  after  the 
elementary  period.  The  small  increase  during  the  high-school  period  may 
be  due  to  the  particular  character  of  the  school's  training,  or  it  may  be 
due  to  the  presence  of  some  elements  of  transfer  from  the  silent  process. 

The  growth  curve  for  average  durations  of  fixations  in  oral  reading 
is  shown  in  Table  VII  and  by  the  solid  line  in  Figure  5.  The  broken 
line  gives  the  corresponding  curve  for  silent  reading.  With  the  excep- 
tion of  an  irregularity  at  the  third  grade,  the  oral  curve  shows  a  rapid 
rise  through  the  fourth  grade,  with  a  small  tendency  toward  increase 
beyond  that  point. 

The  characteristics  of  the  oral  curves  in  Figures  4  and  5  are  better 
understood  if  they  are  studied  together.  Figure  4  shows  a  rapid  rise 
in  the  curve  for  average  recognition-span  during  the  third  grade  with 
practically  no  growth  at  all  during  the  fourth.  Figure  5  shows  a  slight 
loss  in  average  duration  of  fixation  in  the  third  grade  with  a  very  pro- 
nounced increase  during  the  fourth  grade.  These  two  grades  furnish 
a  good  illustration  of  alternation  in  growth.  The  energies  of  the  third 
grade  were  evidently  so  entirely  concerned  with  increasing  the  span  of 
recognition  that  the  element  of  duration  of  fixation  made  no  improve- 
ment; while  the  fourth  grade  expended  its  energies  primarily  in  develop- 


40 


FUXDAMENTAL  READING  HABITS 


ing  a  short  fixation  time,  with  only  a  small  increase  in  the  size  of 
recognition-span.  A  similar  situation  occurs  in  the  Junior  and  Senior 
groups  from  the  high  school.  These  variations  indicate  the  flexibility 
of  the  growth  in  different  elements  of  the  reading  process.  The  pupils 
can  make  more  than  one  type  of  adjustment  in  their  progress  toward 
maturity. 

The  fact  that  the  grade  medians  for  the  average  duration  of  fixations 
in  oral  reading  never  reach  the  medians  for  silent  reading  is  probably 

TABLE  VII 
Growth  Stages  for  Average  Duration  of  Fixation  Pauses  in  Oral  Reading 


AX-ERAGE 

Number  of 

School  Grade 

Fixations 
PER  Line 

IB 

I  A 

II 

III 

IV 

V 

VI 

VII 

F 

So 

J 

Se 

Col 

Total 

!;  .o-'j.o. 

I 

3 

2 
2 

2 
5 
4 

2 

6 
2 

I 

I 
4 
4 

I 

2 

5 

2 

2 

7 
I 
I 

8 

6 . 0-6 . 9 . 

3 

7 
2 

4 

7 
6 

3 

7 
10 

2 

42 

7 .0-7.0. 

2 

3 
4 
3 

I 
2 

3 

I 
2 
6 

49 
t8 

8.0-8.9. . . 

2 

II 

io.o-ro.9. . 
I I . o-i 1.9.. 
1 2. 0-12. 9. . 
13. 0-13. 9. . 
14. 0-14.9. . 
1 1;  0— I  c  Q 

3 

2 

2 
I 
2 
2 

I 

II 

2 

I 

8 

4 
2 

I 

16  0—16  9 

I 

I 

17. 0-17 .0. . 

18. 0-18. 9.  . 

19. 0-19. 9. . 
20.0-up. . . . 

3 
3 

3 

S 

2 

Total..  .  . 

II 

13 

16 

13 

16 

16 

19 

8 

II 

II 

10 

9 

II 

164 

Median.. 

19.  2 

12.8 

9.8 

10. 1 

7-7 

7.2 

7-3 

7.0 

6.7 

6.6 

7.0 

6.5 

7.5 

due  to  the  retarding  influence  of  the  voice.  Pronouncing  the  words 
slows  down  the  entire  process,  giving  the  reader  more  time  for  his  recog- 
nitions but  establishing  a  habit  of  making  longer  fixations. 

The  growth  in  regularity  of  procedure  along  the  printed  lines,  as 
measured  by  the  decrease  in  the  number  of  regressive  movements,  is 
shown  in  Table  VIII  and  Figure  6.  The  curve  for  oral  reading,  as 
exhibited  in  Figure  6,  is  very  irregular.  During  the  first  six  years  the 
decrease  in  regressive  movements  approaches  the  level  of  the  silent-read- 
ing curve,  but  beyond  this  point  the  curve  makes  no  conspicuous  rise 
and  remains  considerably  below  the  medians  for  silent  reading.     The 


GROWTH  STAGES  OF  CERTAIN  ELEMENTS  OF  READING 


41 


20-up 


IBIA 


Fig.  5. — Growth  stages  for  average  duration  of  fLxation  pauses  in  oral  reading. 
School  grade  shown  on  horizontal  axis;  average  duration  of  iixation  pause  shown  on 
vertical  axis.     (Broken  line  reproduces  corresponding  silent  reading  curve.) 


42 


FUXDMIENT.\L  READING  HABITS 


notable  characteristic  in  this  curve  is  not  its  failure  to  show  greater 
growth  during  the  last  six  years,  but  rather,  the  high  level  of  rhythmic 
eye-movement  habits  during  the  first  sLx  years.  This  may  be  due  to 
the  fact  that  in  oral  reading  the  reader  is  conscious  of  a  demand  for 
continuity  in  the  process,  and  that  the  mere  necessity  of  pronouncing 
the  words  in  order  also  stimulates  the  eyes  to  move  along  in  the  forward 
direction. 

TABLE  VHI 

Growth  Stages  for  Average  Number  of  Regressive  iMo\-EiiEXTS  per  Lixe  in 

Oral  Reading 


Average 
Number  of 

School  Gr.^de 

Total 

Movements 
PER  Line 

IB 

lA 

II 

III 

IV 

v 

VI 

VII 

F 

So 

J 

Se 

Col 

I 

I 
3 
5 
5 
2 

I 

I 

2 
2 

4 
I 

I 

I 

2 
2 

I 
I 

4 
5 
I 

I 

I 
3 

2 

3 

2 

2 
10 

3 

I 
I 

2 

I 
I 

2 
2 

t6 

I.O-I 
I -5-1 

2.0-2 

2.5-2 

3 -0-3 
3-5-3 
4.0-4 

4-5-4 
5 -0-5 
5-5-5 
6.0-6 

4 

Q        .  . 

I 

2 

4 
4 

2 

I 
I 

3 
4 
5 

I 
I 

5 

2 

I 

5 

I 

3 

50 
23 

4 

I 

4 

29 

9 

II 

4 

2 

2 

3 

I 

I 

I 

I 

3 

6 

4.... 
9.... 
4.  .  .  . 
0 

2 
I 

2 

I 

I 
I 

I 

I 

I 

3 

4 

I 

I 

4 

0  .  .  .  . 

I 

I 

6.5-6 
7.0-7 

4.  .  .  . 

7-5-7 
8.0-8 

0  .  .  .  . 

4.  .  .  . 

8.S-U 

D 

I 

I 

Total.. .  . 

II 

13 

16 

13 

16 

16 

19 

8 

II 

II 

10 

9 

II 

164 

Me 

dian. . 

4-4 

3-1 

2-5 

1.8 

2.0 

1.4 

1-4 

2.0 

1-5 

i-S 

I.I 

1.4 

I.  2 

As  a  whole  the  growth  curves  for  the  three  fundamental  character- 
istics of  eye-movements  are  not  conspicuously  different  in  oral  and 
silent  reading.  The  apparent  difference  at  the  first-grade  level  has  been 
explained.  The  differences  at  the  upper  level  are  to  be  expected  from 
the  nature  of  the  two  processes.  It  must  be  kept  clearly  in  mind, 
however,  that  the  curves  for  the  two  processes  are  the  result  of  the  par- 
ticular kind  of  training  which  the  school  has  given.     A  different  emphasis 


GROWTH  STAGES  OF  CERTAIN  ELEMENTS  OF  READING         43 


0.5 


7.0  — 

7.5  - 
8.0  - 


•5-up 


^-O O or' 


,-< 


J L 


J L 


IBIA        II       III        IV        V        VI       VII 


So. 


J. 


Se.      Col. 


Fig.  6. — Growth  stages  for  average  number  of  regressive  movements  per  line  in 
oral  reading.  School  grade  shown  on  horizontal  axis;  average  number  of  regressive 
movements  per  line  shown  on  vertical  axis.  (Broken  line  reproduces  corresponding 
silent  reading  curve.) 


44  FUXDAMENTAL  READING  HABITS 

upon  silent  or  oral  reading  might  cause  a  considerable  modification  in 
the  curves. 

Before  attempting  to  make  further  interpretations  of  the  relation  of 
these  three  types  of  eye-movements  to  progress  through  the  school 
grades,  the  writer  desires  to  present  some  facts  revealing  the  relation- 
ship between  two  other  series  of  measures.  Since  position  in  school 
grade  is  not  determined  by  reading  ability  alone,  other  factors  would 
certainly  modify  to  some  extent  the  growth  curves  just  exhibited.  A 
stud\-  of  the  development  of  eye-movement  habits  in  relation  to  progress 
in  reading  ability  as  measured  by  some  objective  and  standardized  tests 
in  this  subject  would,  therefore,  bring  out  some  significant  relationships. 
For  this  purpose  the  growth  curves  of  the  three  characteristics  of  eye- 
movement  habits  will  be  shown,  first,  for  oral  reading  in  comparison  with 
the  scores  on  the  Gray  Oral  Reading  Paragraphs  and,  second,  for  silent 
reading  in  comparison  with  comprehension  scores  on  the  Monroe  Silent 
Reading  Test. 

EYE-MOVEMENT   ELEMENTS   AND  ACHIEVEMENT   IN   ORAL  READING 

In  order  to  make  valid  comparisons  with  progress  in  oral-reading 
achievement,  regardless  of  school  grade,  the  scores  on  the  Gray  Oral 
Reading  Paragraphs  were  modified  so  that  identical  scores  represent 
equal  reading  ability,  without  reference  to  the  school  grade  of  the  sub- 
jects. This  modification  is  necessary  because  in  the  Gray  test  the  stand- 
ard scores  are  relative  to  the  grade,  average  reading  ability  in  each  being 
assigned  the  same  score.  In  order  to  equate  the  scores,  Grade  VI  was 
arbitrarily  taken  as  a  standard,  while  the  scores  for  the  grades  below 
were  reduced  as  follows:  Grade  V  reduced  5  points.  Grade  IV  reduced 
ID  points.  Grade  III  reduced  15  points,  and  Grade  II  reduced  20  points. 
This  would  mean  that  a  score  of  50  in  Grade  II  would  represent  the  same 
degree  of  reading  achievement,  before  reduction,  as  a  score  of  30  in  Grade 
VI.  Such  a  score  would  accordingly  be  reduced  to  30  for  purposes  of 
comparison. 

Scores  on  the  Gray  Oral  Reading  Paragraphs  were  secured  for  eighty 
subjects  selected  from  the  second  to  the  sixth  grade,  inclusive.  The  scores 
for  the  individual  subjects  which  were  used  in  this  part  of  the  investiga- 
tion have  l)een  given  in  Table  II. 

The  relationship  between  growth  in  span  of  recognition  and  increase 
in  oral  reading  ability  is  shown  by  the  data  in  Table  IX  and  by  the 
corresponding  curve  in  Figure  7.     This  figure  should  be  read  in  the 


GROWTH  STAGES  OF  CERTAIN  ELEMENTS  OF  READING 


45 


same  manner  as  those  preceding,  except  that  on  the  horizontal  axis  the 
modified  score  interval  on  the  Gray  reading  test  is  given  instead  of  school 
grade.  The  figure  shows  that  those  pupils  who  make  modified  scores 
on  the  Gray  test  of  from  20  to  29  have  a  median  of  12.8  fixations  per 
line;  that  those  pupils  who  fall  in  the  score  interval  of  from  30  to  39 
have  a  median  of  11.3  fixations  per  line,  etc.  The  curve  shows  a  rapid 
rise  up  to  the  Gray  score  interval  of  50-59,  following  which  the  increase 
is  more  gradual.  The  scores  on  the  Gray  test  are  determined  by  free- 
dom  from   such   errors   as   mispronunciation,   repetition,   suI)stitution, 


TABLE  IX 
Relationship  between  Average  Number  of  Fixations  per  Line  in  Oral  Reading 

AND  MODIFEED  ScORE  ON  GrAY  OrAL  READING  PARAGRAPHS 


Average  Number 

of  Fixations  per 

Line 

Score  Intervals  on  Gray  Test 

Total 

20-29 

,SO-3g 

40-49 

50-59 

60-69 

70-79 

<  .  0-  i^  .  0 

I 

I 
I 
2 
5 
5 
I 
I 

I 

2 

6 . 0—6 . 9 

I 

70-7. 9 

8.0-8.0 

I 
2 
2 
2 

4 

I 
2 

I 
I 

2 

5 
3 

7 

I 

2 

I 

8 

5 
2 

2 

I 

6 

21 

9 . 0—0 .0 

15 

13 

8 

10. 0-10.9 

II .0—11 .g 

I 

1 2. 0-12. 9 

I ^ . 0— I ^ . 0 . 

3 

5 
4 

I 

14.0— 14.    0 

I  "J .  0— I  ■;  Q 

I 

16. 0-16. 9 

17. 0-17. 9 

2 

I 

2 

I 

Total 

7 

16 

20 

20 

16 

I 

80 

Median 

12.8 

II-3 

10. 0 

9.0 

8.8 

8.5 

insertion,  and  omission  of  words.  While  the  existence  of  a  high  correla- 
tion cannot  be  used  to  prove  a  causal  relationship  between  the  elements 
correlated,  nevertheless  the  fact  that  the  development  of  a  wider 
recognition-span  accompanies  the  elimination  of  these  errors  is  suggest- 
ive. It  is  at  least  an  additional  item  of  evidence  to  indicate  that  a  \ 
wide  recognition-span  is  a  fundamental  element  in  reading  and  that 
up  to  a  certain  stage  of  maturity,  growth  in  general  achievement  in  oral 
reading  is  accompanied  by  a  correspondingly  rapid  growth  in  span  of 
recognition. 


46 


FUND.\I^IENTAL  READING  HABITS 


The  relationship  between  growth  in  rate  of  recognition  and  score  on 
the  Gray  test  is  shown  in  Table  X  and  Figure  8.  Here  again  the  curve 
makes  a  rapid  rise  up  to  the  interval  50-59  with  a  tendency  to  a  less 


20-29     30-39     40-49     50-59     60-69     70-79 

Fig.  7.— Relationship  between  average  number  of  fixations  per  line  in  oral  reading 
and  modified  score  on  Gray  Oral  Reading  Paragraphs.  IModified  score  on  Gray  oral 
test  shown  on  horizontal  axis;  average  number  of  fixations  per  line  shown  on  vertical 
axis. 


GROWTH  STAGES  OF  CERTAIN  ELEMENTS  OF  READING 


47 


TABLE  X 

Relationship  between  Average  Duration  of  Fixation  Pauses  in  Oral  Reading 
AND  Modified  Score  on  Gray  Oral  Reading  Paragraphs 


Average  Duration 

Score  Interval  on  Gray  Test 

Total 

of  Fixations 

20-29 

30-39 

40-49 

SO-S9 

60-69 

70-79 

6 . o— 6 .9 

3 
8 

3 
2 

4 

7 
9 
3 
I 

6 

9 

I 

I 

17 
?8 

7  0—7 . Q    

2 
4 

5 
3 

I 
I 

8 . 0-8 . Q 

II 

90-9-9 

10. 0-10.9 

1 1 . 0— 1 1.9 

2 
2 

10 

9 

1 2 . o-i 2.9 

I  2  .  0— I  •?  .  0 

2 

3 

14. 0-14. 9 

I 

I 

Total 

7 

16 

20 

20 

16 

I 

80 

Median 

10.8 

9-4 

7-9 

7-3 

7.2 

6-5 

20-29     30-39     40-49     50-59     ho-69     70-79 

Fig.  8. — Relationship  between  average  duration  of  fixation  pauses  in  oral  reading 
and  modified  score  on  Gray  Oral  Reading  Paragraphs.  Modified  score  on  Gray  oral 
test  shown  on  horizontal  axis;  average  duration  of  fLxations  shown  on  vertical  axis. 


48 


FUNDA]\IENTAL  READING  HABITS 


pronounced  increase  beyond  that  point.  The  increase  at  the  interval 
70-79  represents  only  a  single  case  and  should  not  be  emphasized  unduly. 
The  curve  shows  clearly  that  a  development  in  the  habit  of  quick 
recognition  is  a  part  of  general  improvement  in  reading  abiHty. 

Table  XI  and  Figure  9  exhibit  the  data  relative  to  the  correlation 
between  average  number  of  regressive  movements  per  line  and  modified 
score  on  the  Gray  Oral  Reading  Paragraphs.  The  growth  curve  shows  a 
progressive,  Init  not  rapid,  development  in  this  habit  of  regularity  of  eye- 
fixations.  There  is  no  doubt  that  the  reduction  of  the  number  of  regres- 
sive movements  is  a  diflicult  process,  but  the  value  of  the  development 

TABLE  XI 

Relationship  betweex  Average  Number  of  Regressi\e  Movements  per  Line 

IN  Oral  Reading  and  Modified  Score  on  Gray  Oral  Re.ading 

Paragraphs 


Average  Xumber  of 

Score  Interval  en  Gray  Test 

Total 

Regressive  Move- 
ments per  Line 

20-29 

30-39 

40-49 

50-59 

60-69 

70-79 

0.0-0 

I 

7 
5 
5 

I 
I 

I 
2 
6 
7 
3 

I 

2 

I 
4 
3 
3 

I 
2 

3 
8 

I 
2 

I 
I 

I 

6 

26 

16 

2.0-2 
2.5-2 
3 -0-3 
3-5-3 
4.0-4 

4-5-4 

4 

9 

I 
3 

14 
6 

5 

4 

9 

I 
I 

I 

I 
I 

2 

2 

I 

Total 

7 

16 

20 

20 

16 

I 

80 

:Mec 

lian 

2.9 

2.0 

1-7 

1.6 

1-3 

I.  2 

of  regular,  rhythmic  eye-movements  cannot  be  judged  by  the  absolute 
size  of  the  reduction.  The  subject  who  reduces  the  average  number  of 
regressive  movements  per  line  from  2  to  i  has  accomplished  a  task  which 
requires,  on  the  average,  three  years  of  school  training  in  reading.  The 
ability  to  reduce  the  average  number  of  regressive  movements  per  line 
to  0.5  or  less,  as  is  done  by  a  great  many  high-school  and  college  students 
for  silent  reading,  represents  a  degree  of  mastery  which  is  characteristic 
of  only  those  readers  with  the  most  mature  reading-habits. 

To  summarize  the  three  sets  of  data  comparing  growth  in  eye- 
movement  habits  with  scores  on  the  Gray  test,  it  is  clear  that  the  curves 
of  development  for  these  three  fundamental  elements  of  reading  show 


GROWTH  STAGES  OF  CERTAIN  ELEMENTS  OF  READING 


49 


similar  rates  of  growth  when  based  upon  an  objective  measure  of  reading 
achievement  and  when  based  upon  school  grade.  It  must  be  remem- 
bered that  all  of  the  eighty  subjects  used  for  these  three  growth  curves 


20-29      30-39      40-49      50-59      60-69      70-79 
Fig.  9. — Relationship  between  average  number  of  regressive  movements  per  line 
in  oral  reading  and  modified  scores  on  Gray  Oral  Reading  Paragraphs.     Modified 
scores  on  Gray  oral  test  shown  on  horizontal  axis;    average   number  of  regressive 
movements  per  line  shown  on  vertical  axis. 

were  selected  from  Grades  II  to  VI,  and   consequently   comparisons 

must  be  made  with  similar  grades  in  the  curves^of  Figures  4,  5,  and  6. 

/As  the  reader  develops  in  span  of  recognition,  rate  of  recognition,  and 

(regularity  of  procedure  along  the  printed  lines,  he  also  becomes  more 


so 


FUNDAMENTAL  READING  HABITS 


mature  in  the  elements  which  are  measured  by  the  oral  test,  such  as 
repetitions,  omissions,  substitutions,  insertions,  and  mispronunciations. 

EYE-MOVXMENT  ELEMENTS  AND  COMPREHENSION  IN  SILENT  READING 

One  turns  with  interest  to  the  silent-reading  process  to  see.  whether 
similar  conditions  are  found.  In  order  to  secure  data  upon  this  problem, 
a  group  of  sixty-four  subjects  who  had  taken  the  Monroe  Silent  Reading 
Test  was  selected  from  Grades  III  to  VI,  inclusive.  The  comprehension 
scores  for  these  subjects,  together  with  their  eye-movement  average, 
were  shown  in  Table  I. 

TABLE  XII 

Relationship  between  Average  Number  of  Fixations  per  Like  in  Silent 
Reading  and  Comprehension  Score  on  Monroe  Silent  Reading  Test 


Average  Number  of  Fixations 

Score  Interval  on  Monroe  Test 

Total 

per  Line 

7-14 

15-22 

23-30 

31-38 

39-46 

t;.o— 'j.o 

2 
2 
3 
3 

2 
3 
4 

4 
19 
IS 
13 

6 

6  o— 6  9 

2 
3 
3 

I 

3 

I 

12 
4 
5 

I 

7 . 0—7 .0 

I 

2 

4 
I 

I 

8.0-8.9. ■ 

0 . 0—0 .0 

10. 0—10.9 

4 

2 

II .0—11 .9 

I 

1 2 . 0— 1 2 . 9 

Total 

9 

13 

23 

10 

9 

64 

Median 

9-4 

8-5 

7.0 

7-3 

6.8 

The  relationship  between  average  number  of  fixations  per  line  and 
comprehension  score  on  the  Monroe  test  is  exhibited  by  Table  XII  and 
Figure  10.  On  the  base  line  of  Figure  10,  score  intervals  on  the  Monroe 
test  are  substituted  for  school  grade  or  score  on  the  Gray  test.  The 
figure  should,  therefore,  be  read  as  follows:  nine  pupils  made  scores 
on  the  Monroe  test  ranging  from  7  to  14,  the  median  of  their  average 
number  of  fixations  per  line  being  9.4;  thirteen  pupils  fell  in  the  score 
interval  of  15  to  22,  their  median  number  of  fixations  being  8.5,  etc. 
The  curve,  although  irregular,  shows  an  increase  in  the  width  of  the 
recognition-span  accompanying  an  increase  in  comprehension  score. 
The  greatest  increase  in  span  of  recognition  appears  between  the  compre- 
hension scores  of  7  and  30.  Beyond  a  score  of  30,  increase  in  recognition- 
span  is  not  a  large  factor,  or,  to  put  it  otherwise,  a  recognition  unit  wide 


GROWTH  STAGES  OF  CERTAIN  ELEMENTS  OF  READING         51 

enough  to  accompany  a  comprehension  level  of  30  is  almost  equally- 
well  adapted  to  a  comprehension  score  of  45. 

Table  XIII  and  Figure  11  show  the  relationship  between  average 
duration  of  fixations  and  comprehension  score  on  the  Monroe  test.  The 
curve  in  Figure  11  is  negatively  accelerated  and  closely  resembles  the 


7-14         15-22          23-30        31-38        39-46 

Fig.  10. — Relationship  between  average  number  of  fixations  per  line  in  silent 
reading  and  comprehension  score  on  Monroe  Silent  Reading  Test.  Score  on  Monroe 
test  shown  on  horizontal  axis;  average  number  of  fixations  per  line  shown  on  vertical 
axis. 

shape  of  the  curve  for  this  same  element  of  Grades  III  to  VI  as  shown 
in  Figure  2.  As  ability  to  comprehend  increases,  the  average  recognition 
time  becomes  shorter.  This  means  that  when  the  recognition  process 
becomes  more  nearly  automatic  and  requires  no  special  analytical  effort 
the  mental  processes  of  the  reader  are  relieved  of  the  necessity  of  close 
attention  to  the  perceptual  elements  and  can  therefore  concentrate  upon 


52- 


FUNDAMENTAL  READING  HABITS 


the  meaning  of  the  passage  with  a  resulting  increase  in  the  compre- 
hension score. 

Long  fixations  are  symptoms  of  difficulty  on  the  part  of  the  reader. 
'  They  occur  chiefly  in  two  kinds  of  situations.  The  first  of  these  is 
when  a  particularly  difficult  word  appears  in  the  selection.  At  such 
points  an  excessive  number  of  very  long  fixations  generally  appears. 
The  mental  process  of  the  reader  is  engaged  in  an  effort  to  analyze  the 
word,  during  which  the  eye  increases  the  duration  of  its  fixations  in 
order  to  give  time  for  the  reader  to  arrive  at  a  final  solution  of  the 
difficulty.  A  second  type  of  situation  in  which  very  long  fixations  are 
found  is  on  the  occasion  of  a  decided  strain  upon  the  mental  process  of 
interpretation.     When  the  reader  is  in  the  attitude  of  intensive  study 

TABLE  XIII 

Relationship   between    Average    Duration    of    Fixation    Pauses  in   Silent 
Reading  and  Comprehension  Score  on  Monroe  Silent  Reading  Test 


Score  Interval  on  Monroe  Test 

Total 

Fixations 

7-14 

lS-2  2 

23-30 

31-38 

39-46 

t;  o-K  0    

I 

7 

2 
2 

I 

7 
12 

4 

5 
4 

I 

5 
3 

I 

18 

6  o— 6  9    

26 

7  o— 7  o      

3 
3 
3 

II 

8  0-8  9 

5 
4 

Total 

9 

13 

23 

10 

9 

64 

Median 

8.5 

6.8 

6.4 

6.0 

5-9 

there  is  a  distinct  tendency  to  increase  the  length  of  fixations.  When  a 
point  is  reached  where  a  phrase  is  highly  charged  with  meaning,  the 
reader  frequently  holds  his  eye  in  a  fixed  position  while  he  makes  the 
required  mental  interpretation.  There  are,  however,  individual  varia- 
tions in  meeting  this  type  of  situation,  since  some  readers  let  their  eye 
wander  in  an  apparently  aimless  series  of  short  fixations  while  they  make 
the  necessary  thought  adjustment.  A  capital  example  of  the  nature 
of  a  long  fixation  pause  may  be  drawn  from  a  process  different  from  read- 
ing. If  a  pupil  is  given  a  vertical  column  of  digits  with  instructions  to 
find  the  sum,  the  character  of  his  eye-movements  will  be  quite  different 
from  those  in  his  ordinary  reading  process.  The  most  conspicuous  differ- 
ence is  in  the  duration  of  the  fixations.  While  in  the  ordinary  process 
of  reading  the  average  duration  of  a  fixation  pause  for  a  fifth-grade  pupil 


GROWTH  STAGES  OF  CERTAIN  ELEMENTS  OF  READING 


53 


is  about  6  twenty-fifths  of  a  second,  in  arithmetic  addition  the  average 
pause  ranges  from  40  to  60  twenty-fifths  with  occasional  fixations  as 
long  as  150  twenty-fifths  of  a  second.     It  is  not  difficult  to  see  the  reason 


7-14        15-22         23-30        31-38         3Q-46 

Fig.  II. — Relationship  between  average  duration  of  fixation  pauses  in  silent 
reading  and  comprehension  score  on  the  Monroe  Silent  Reading  Test.  Score  on 
Monroe  test  shown  on  horizontal  axis;  average  duration  of  fixation  pauses  shown  on 
vertical  axis. 

TABLE  XIV 

Relationship  between  Average  Number  of  Regressive  Movements  per  Line  in 
Silent  Reading  and  Comprehension  Score  on  Monroe  Silent  Reading  Test 


Score  Interval  on  Monroe  Test 

Total 

Movements  per  Line 

7-14 

15-22 

23-30 

31-38 

39-46 

A                                        

2 

5 
6 

3 

5 

I 

I 
3 
3 
2 

4 
2 

3 

3 

0.5-0 
I   o-i 

3 
3 

I 
2 
2 
2 

13 

A      

2 

3 

I 
I 
I 
I 

16 

I -5-1 
2 .0—2 

Q           

13 

4 

10 

2.5-2 
3 -0-3 
3-5-3 

T 

IV 

3 

2 

5 

I 

otal 

9 

13 

23 

10 

9 

64 

[edian 

1.9 

1-7 

1-4 

i-S 

I.I 

for  such  long  fixations  in  arithmetic  addition.  The  perceptual  problem 
of  recognizing  the  digits  makes  a  very  minor  demand.  All  that  is 
required  is  that  the  pupil  recognize  the  successive  digits  one  at  a  time. 


54 


FUNDAMENTAL  READING  HABITS 


The  difficult  part  of  arithmetic  addition  consists  of  making  the  mental 
associations  required  for  arriving  at  the  correct  answer.  The  child 
encounters  a  combination  of  37  plus  9,  and,  since  further  perception 
will  not  aid  him  in  making  the  association,  he  simply  lets  his  eye  rest 


15-22 


23-30 


31-38        39-46 


Fig.  12. — Relationship  between  average  number  of  regressive  movements  per 
line  in  silent  reading  and  comprehension  score  on  Monroe  Silent  Reading  Test.  Score 
on  Monroe  test  shown  on  horizontal  axis;  average  number  of  regressive  movements 
per  line  shown  on  vertical  axis. 


upon  the  same  point  while  he  is  engaged  in  the  mental  labor  of  making 
the  proper  association.  If  it  requires  as  long  as  150  twenty-fifths  of  a 
second  to  arrive  at  the  proper  answer  there  is  probably  less  distraction 
from  a  single  long  fixation  than  from  a  series  of  short  ones  which  would 
introduce  new  material  to  the  eye.  Although  further  experimentation 
would  be  necessary  to  establish  it,  the  writer  proposes  the  hypothesis 


GROWTH  STAGES  OF  CERTAIN  ELEMENTS  OF  READING 


55 


that  in  general  the  presence  of  fixations  which  are  very  much  longer 
than  the  subject's  average  fixation  time  is  caused  by  central  thought 
difficulties,  while  the  presence  in  a  given  position  of  an  excessive  number 
of  fixations  indicates  a  confusion  which  is  primarily  related  to  the  process 
of  perception  rather  than  interpretation.  This  hypothesis  applies,  how- 
ever, to  variations  within  a  single  record  or  for  a  single  subject,  and  should 
not  be  interpreted  to  mean  that  a  longer  average  fixation  time  indicates 
a  greater  degree  of  interpretation.  In  fact,  the  data  presented  in  Figure 
II  make  it  clear  that  in  general  a  decrease  in  the  average  duration  time 
accompanies  an  increase  in  comprehension.  The  mature  reader  who 
has  less  trouble  with  interpretation  has  fewer  long  fixation  pauses  and 
consequently  a  lower  average  fixation  time. 

The  correlation  between  average  number  of  regressive  movements 
per  line  and  comprehensive  score  on  the  Monroe  test  is  shown  in  Table 
XIV  and  Figure  12.  The  curve  in  Figure  12  shows  an  increase  in  regu- 
larity of  comprehension  accompanying  progress  in  ability  to  compre- 
hend. The  break  in  the  direction  of  the  curve  indicates  that  while  a 
certain  level  of  regularity  of  eye-movements  is  sufficient  for  a  consider- 
able range  of  comprehension,  the  pupils  who  reached  the  highest  level  of 
comprehension  had  made  a  decided  improvement  in  the  rhythmic 
character  of  their  eye-movements. 

COMPARISON   OF   GROWTH   CURVES   FOR   THREE   ELEMENTS    OF 
SILENT   READING 

Four  groups  of  data  have  now  been  presented  relating  to  the  three 
fundamental    characteristics    of    eye-movements    habits,    namely,    the 


TABLE  XV 

Percentage  of  Increase  in  Growth  Curves  of  Three  Eye-Movement  Habits — 

Silent  Reading 


Eve -Move  ME  NT 

School  Grade 

Habit 

IB 

lA 

II 

III 

IV 

V 

VI 

VII 

F 

So 

J 

Se 

Col 

Average      number 
fixations  per  line 

0 

17 

42 

53 

60 

63 

60 

63 

61 

69 

70 

66 

68 

Average    duration 
of  fixation 

0 

35 

45 

52 

59 

62 

65 

64 

63 

63 

66 

63 

62 

Average      number 
regressive  move- 
ments  

0 

22 

55 

65 

73 

75 

71 

71 

80 

86 

86 

86 

90 

S6 


FUNDAMENTAL  READING  HABITS 


average  number  of  fixations  per  line,  the  average  duration  of  the  fixa- 
tion pauses,  and  the  average  number  of  regressive  movements.  It  has 
been  shown  that  a  decrease  in  the  measure  of  each  of  these  three  char- 
acteristics accompanies  (i)  progress  through  school  grades,  (2)  develop- 
ment of  oral-reading  ability,  and  (3)  increase  in  comprehension  in  silent 
reading.     The  significance  of  these  facts  can  be  seen  more  clearly  if  the 


IBIA 


Col. 


Fig.  13. — Per  cent  of  increase  in  growth  for  three  eye-movement  habits — silent 
reading.  School  grade  shown  on  horizontal  axis;  per  cent  of  increase  shown  on 
vertical  axis.  Curve  a  represents  average  number  of  fixations  per  line;  curve  b 
average  duration  of  fixation  pauses;  curv^e  c  average  number  of  regressive  movements 
per  line. 


curves  of  growth  for  the  different  elements  studied  are  plotted  on  the 
same  graph  where  their  characteristics  can  be  compared. 

In  order  to  reduce  the  curves  for  the  three  measures  of  eye- 
movements  to  a  similar  scale,  the  percentage  of  increase  at  the  different 
grade  levels  was  computed,  the  median  for  Grade  I  B  being  taken  as 
the  base.  The  percentage  of  increase  in  the  successive  grades  is  shown  in 
Table  XV.  This  table  should  be  read  as  follows:  in  respect  to  growth 
in  average  number  of  fixations  per  line  the  median  for  Grade  I  A  showed 


GROWTH  STAGES  OF  CERTAIN  ELEMENTS  OF  READING  57 

an  increase  over  Grade  IB  of  17  per  cent;  the  median  for  Grade  II  an 
increase  of  42  per  cent;  the  median  for  Grade  III  an  increase  of  52  per 
cent,  etc.  In  the  same  manner  the  percentage  of  increase  in  growth  for 
average  duration  of  fixations  and  for  average  number  of  regressive 
nlovements  per  line  is  given.  These  data  are  expressed  in  graphic 
form  in  Figure  13. 

The  presentation  of  the  three  curves  upon  the  same  background 
serves  to  emphasize  the  fact  that  the  period  of  major  development  of 
the  elements  of  span  of  recognition,  speed  of  recognition,  and  regularity 
of  eye-movements  across  the  line  comes  during  the  first  four  grades.  A 
continued  rise  in  the  growth  curves  is  apparent  in  the  fifth  grade,  but 
it  is  relatively  small  in  amount.  The  turning-point  in  the  direction  of 
the  curves  appears  at  the  end  of  the  fourth  grade.  Other  investigatiotis 
in  reading  have  also  shown  that  the  fourth  grade  is  a  crucial  point. 
The  indications  are  that  the  character  of  the  reading  process  is  dilTerent 
during  the  first  four  years  than  in  the  later  period.  Certainly  in  the 
fifth,  sixth,  and  seventh  grades  the  type  of  development  is  entirely  differ- 
ent than  in  the  first  four  years.  Evidently  these  stages  of  development 
are  sufficiently  clear  to  suggest  a  definite  variation  in  the  treatment  of 
the  school. 

The  later  rise  in  the  curves  for  regressive  movements  and  average 
number  of  fixations  per  line  suggests  that  the  high  school  is  concerned 
with  a  reading  problem  quite  definite  in  character.  It  would  be  an 
interesting  experiment  to  determine  whether  a  modification  of  the  read- 
ing course  in  the  intermediate  grades  would  eliminate  the  plateau  in 
these  two  curves.  If  this  could  be  accomplished  one  would  expect  a 
considerable  improvement  in  the  character  of  the  reading  during  this 
period. 

In  this  chapter  the  facts  presented  have  emphasized  the  growth  of 
the  normal  or  average  pupils.  This  has  been  accomplished  by  combining 
the  data  for  a  large  number  of  subjects.  Mass  data  show  general  trends, 
but  they  also  cover  up  many  significant  individual  variations.  In  the 
following  chapter  the  method  of  study  will  change  from  the  statistical 
treatment  of  many  cases  to  an  analytical  treatment  of  the  detailed 
characteristics  of  certain  groups  of  individuals. 


CHAPTER  III 
DETAILED  AN.\LYSIS  OF  FIRST-GRADE  READING 

The  reading  work  of  the  first  grade  is  without  doubt  more  important 
than  that  of  any  other  single  year  of  the  elementary  school.  It  is  at 
the  beginning  of  reading  that  the  pupils  get  their  fundamental  attitude 
toward  the  reading  process.  It  is  here  that  the  first  basic  habits  are 
formed.  A  wrong  start  in  the  first  grade  is  particularly  unfortunate 
since  it  necessitates  the  later  undoing  of  foundational  habits  and  atti- 
tudes. A  study  of  the  pupil's  reading  at  this  level,  therefore,  is  sure  to 
uncover  some  very  significant  facts. 

Through  a  comparison  of  the  reading  records  of  immature  and 
mature  readers,  such  as  was  made  in  Plates  I  and  II,  it  is  possible  to  define 
the  approximate  initial  point  and  the  ultimate  goal  of  reading.  As 
has  been  pointed  out  in  chapter  i,  the  determination  of  the  ultimate 
goal  in  reading  does  not  indicate  the  nature  of  the  growth  stages  through 
which  a  particular  pupil  passes  in  reaching  the  state  of  maturity.  In 
order  to  throw  more  light  upon  the  detailed  steps  of  this  growth  process, 
the  data  in  chapter  ii  were  presented.  The  normal  growth  curves  for 
three  elements  of  reading  were  shown,  from  which  the  median  position 
in  each  grade  was  apparent.  However,  each  grade  median  was  based 
upon  a  different  group  of  subjects,  so  what  the  curves  really  show  is 
not  the  continuous  progress  of  any  particular  subject  but,  rather,  a 
series  of  cross-sections  which  gives  a  true  picture  of  growth  only  when 
applied  to  the  large  group.  If  any  of  the  tables  accompanying  the 
growth  curves  are  examined  again  it  will  be  noted  that  many  subjects 
deviated  more  or  less  from  these  normal  curves.  (Pherefore,  the  inter- 
pretation of  the  growth  curves  must  be  that  they  show  the  normal  prog- 
ress for  the  group  as  a  whole — the  most  common  route  toward  the 
ultimate  goal  of  maturity.  Individuals  may  deviate  somewhat  from 
this  normal  route  and  follow  a  quite  different  line  of  progress.  But  the 
fact  to  be  emphasized  with  all  the  individuals  is  that  sooner  or  later 
they  must  reach  the  goal.  Their  route  may  be  devious  or  direct,  but 
the  ultimate  goal,  if  indeed  they  reach  it,  is  the  same  for  all. 

The  direction  of  the  route  over  which  the  pupils  travel  depends 
largely  upon  the  method  of  teaching.  One  school  may  begin  its  reading 
work  by  teaching  children  the  alphabet,  then  simple  words,  and  later 

S8 


DETAILED  ANALYSIS  OF  FIRST-GRADE  READING 


59 


sentences.  Children  taught  by  this  method  will  ultimately  learn  to 
read.  Many  adults  can  be  found  who  did  learn  by  this  method.  Their 
curve  of  progress  toward  maturity  followed  a  definite  route.  It  is  not 
the  same  route,  however,  as  that  which  will  be  traveled  by  the  pupil 
who  spends  no  time  upon  a  h  c's  but  who  begins  with  some  other  process 
of  word-analysis.  A  still  different  curve  of  progress  will  be  found  where 
the  initial  emphasis  is  placed  upon  the  sentence  or  some  large  thought 
unit.  The  nature  of  various  methods  of  reaching  a  stage  of  maturity 
may  be  illustrated  by  the  hypothetical  curves  in  Figure  14. 


Fig.  14. — Diagram  illustrating  hypothetical  progress  toward  maturity.  Number 
of  years  of  school  experience  shown  on  base  line;  per  cent  of  maturity  shown  on 
vertical  axis. 


In  this  figure  the  vertical  axis  represents  the  percentage  of  maturity 
attained  by  readers  where  100  per  cent  equals  the  average  maturity 
to  be  expected  in  an  eight-year  elementary  school.  The  base  line 
represents  the  number  of  years  of  practice  in  reading.  Curves  a,  6,  c, 
and  d  represent  progress  according  to  four  purely  hypothetical  methods 
of  teaching  reading.  According  to  method  a  maturity  wUl  be  reached 
in  five  years,  according  to  method  b  in  eight  years,  with  method  c  in 
seven  years,  and  with  method  d  in  sLx  years.  With  method  a  the  pupils 
make  rapid  progress  at  the  beginning  and  maintain  a  fairly  high 
rate  until  maturity  is  reached.  With  method  b  progress  during  the 
first  four  years  is  rapid,  during  the  next  three  rather  slow,  but  during 
the  eighth  year  it  is  again  rapid.     INIethod  c  produces  a  perfectly  con- 


6o  funda:mextal  reading  habits 

stant  rate  of  progress,  with  the  same  amount  of  gain  each  year.  Method 
d  begins  very  slowly  but  succeeds  later  in  stimulating  a  very  rapid 
growth.  If  now  these  four  methods  are  judged  at  the  end  of  two  years 
of  school  work  they  would  be  ranked  in  order  of  merit  a,  b,  c,  d.  How- 
ever, if  their  merit  is  judged  by  the  manner  in  which  they  ultimately 
reach  a  stage  of  maturity,  the  ranking  will  be  a,  d,  c,  b.  The  illustration 
shows  the  danger  of  attempting  to  evaluate  a  method  until  its  total 
growth  curve  is  known. 

The  form  of  a  total  growth  curve  depends  upon  the  order  and  rate 
of  development  of  the  various  elements  which  enter  into  its  composition. 
The  theoretically  most  direct  route  toward  maturity,  which  would 
produce  the  symmetrical  development  of  all  the  elements  involved, 
might  be  very  different  from  the  most  economical  and  practical  route. 
The  theoretically  direct  route  in  the  construction  of  a  skyscraper  would 
be  to  complete  each  story  before  adding  the  next;  but  the  economical 
route  is  to  complete  all  of  the  steel  structure  before  the  building  is 
inclosed,  to  put  in  all  the  plumbing  before  the  walls  are  finished,  etc. 
A  skyscraper  may  be  very  mature  from  the  standpoint  of  its  steel 
structure,  but  be  very  immature  in  its  interior  finish.  In  like  manner 
one  method  of  teaching  reading  may  produce  in  the  third  grade  a  high 
degree  of  maturity  in  word-analysis  and  pronunciation,  together  with 
very  immature  habits  of  interpretation. 

Considering  these  facts,  it  wall  be  the  purpose  of  the  present  chapter 
to  describe  certain  methods  of  teaching  in  the  first  grade,  and  then,  by 
a  detailed  analysis,  to  show  the  effects  of  the  different  methods  upon  the 
fundamental  elements  of  reading.  It  is  not  the  function  of  the  psychol- 
ogist to  evaluate  methods,  but  rather  to  furnish  a  scientific  analysis  of 
the  relationship  between  methods  and  results.  This  analysis  must  go 
into  sufficient  detail  to  show  the  type  of  growth  in  the  various  elements 
of  reading  when  different  methods  are  used,  in  order  that  the  teachers  and 
supervisors  of  reading  may  make  their  evaluation  upon  a  scientific  basis. 

A  further  purpose  of  this  chapter  is  to  show  how,  from  the  very 
beginning  of  reading,  pupils  take  different  courses  in  the  various  elements 
of  the  process.  Many  of  these  variations  are  of  the  nature  of  short 
by-paths  leading  sooner  or  later  back  into  the  normal  route  toward 
maturity.  In  some  cases,  however,  the  deviations  from  normal  progress 
continue  and  eventually  cause  the  types  of  decided  variation  which 
will  be  described  in  the  next  chapter.  The  nature  of  such  deviations 
can  be  best  understood  when  they  are  seen  as  the  continuation  of  indi- 
vidual variations  which  have  their  origin  in  the  earliest  stages  of  reading. 


DETAILED  ANALYSIS  OF  FIRST-GRADE  READING  6 1 

Up  to  the  time  of  the  present  investigation,  as  far  as  the  writer  has 
been  able  to  ascertain,  no  study  of  the  reading  of  first-grade  pupils  has 
been  made  by  the  photographic  method.  The  general  immaturity  of 
pupils  at  this  level  would  seem  to  prohibit  them  from  serving  as  sub- 
jects for  such  an  experiment.  In  making  a  trial,  however,  it  was  found 
that  first-grade  children  behaved  as  normally  before  the  camera  as  their 
older  schoolmates,  and  that  their  eye-movement  records  are  valid. 
Practically  the  only  difference  which  was  noticed  was  the  somewhat 
greater  amount  of  head-movement.  In  only  a  few  cases  did  this  prove 
so  serious  that  the  films  had  to  be  discarded.  By  exercising  all  possible 
speed  and  dexterity  in  operating  the  camera,  it  was  possible  to  secure 
records  of  the  two  paragraphs  in  an  average  of  five  minutes  for  each 
subject.  This  allowed  little  time  for  nervousness  or  for  fatigue  from 
sitting  in  the  same  position  before  the  camera. 

For  the  purpose  of  securing  records  at  different  stages  of  progress 
during  the  first  year,  photographs  of  a  group  of  pupils  from  Grade  I  B 
were  taken  during  the  seventh  week  of  the  school  year,  again  during 
the  thirteenth  week,  and  again  during  the  seventeenth  week.  Records 
were  also  secured  from  a  group  of  I  A  children  at  the  same  time.  Since 
they  had  already  attended  school  one  semester,  their  records  were  taken 
after  a  school  experience  of  twenty-five,  thirty-one,  and  thirty-five 
weeks.  This  method  gave  records  at  six  intervals  during  the  first  school 
year. 

As  subjects  for  these  first-grade  experiments  twelve  children  were 
selected  from  Grade  I  B  and  nine  from  Grade  I  A  of  the  University 
laboratory  school.  In  addition  to  these,  four  I  B  and  six  I  A  children 
were  secured  from  a  neighboring  public  school,  this  group  being  used, 
however,  only  at  the  end  of  the  semester.  This  made  a  total  group 
of  thirty-one  first-grade  pupils.  It  was  a  part  of  the  original  plan  to 
secure  three  records  from  each  of  the  subjects  from  the  University 
Elementary  School.  Sickness  and  other  causes  interfered  in  some  cases, 
so  that  the  complete  series  of  three  records  was  obtained  from  only 
nine  of  the  pupils.  No  subject  from  the  University  first  grade  missed 
more  than  one  test,  however,  so  as  a  result  sixty-one  photographic  records 
were  available  for  the  total  group  of  thirty-one  subjects.  Dictaphone 
records  were  secured  of  the  oral  readings  at  the  same  time  the  photo- 
graphs were  made.  The  basis  upon  which  the  subjects  were  selected 
was  that  both  the  exceptionally  good  and  the  exceptionally  poor  readers 
were  to  be  excluded,  the  pupils  being  taken  from  the  middle  group. 
The  purpose  of  this  method  was  to  secure  t}T3ical  first-grade  pupils. 


52  FUNDAMENTAL  READING  HABITS 


PLATE  V 

The  little  red  hen  found  a  seed. 

It  was  a  wheat  seed. 

The  little  red  hen  said, 

"Who  will  plant  the  seed?" 

The  pig  said,  "Not  I." 

The  dog  said,  "Not  I." 

The  little  red  hen  said,  "I  will." 


A  boy  had  a  dog. 

The  dog  ran  into  the  woods. 

The  boy  ran  after  the  dog. 

He  wanted  the  dog  to  go  home. 

But  the  dog  would  not  go  home. 

The  Httle  boy  said, 

''I  cannot  go  home  without  my  dog. 
Then  the  boy  began  to  cry. 

Selections  used  for  initial  test  of  first-grade  subjects 


» 


DETAILED  ANALYSIS  OF  FIRST-GRADE  READING  63 

The  selections  used  for  the  first  test  are  shown  in  Plate  V.  Those 
used  in  the  later  tests  have  already  been  exhibited  in  Plate  III.  The 
"Little  Red  Hen"  story,  in  the  form  used  in  the  first  test,  had  been  read 
by  all  of  the  I  B  subjects  from  the  University  group  in  their  regular 
school  work,  most  of  them  having  memorized  it  when  it  was  read  in 
class. 

CONTRASTS   IN  METHODS   OF   TEACHING 

Before  presenting  the  results  of  the  experiments  it  will  be  well  to 
notice  the  methods  of  teaching  which  were  employed  in  the  two  schools 
from  which  the  children  were  selected.  This  will  furnish  a  background 
for  the  interpretation  of  the  analytical  studies  of  individual  cases* 

The  children  from  the  public  school  had  learned  to  read  by  a  method 
which  placed  the  major  emphasis  upon  word  mastery.  Elaborate  phonic 
drill  was  provided  in  a  separate  period.  Sufficient  drill  was  given  to 
secure  great  independence  in  the  recognition  of  words.  In  teaching  a 
new  selection  the  teacher  first  told  the  story  in  her  oivn  words  in  order 
to  stimulate  an  attitude  of  interest  on  the  part  of  the  pupils.  Next  she 
wrote  the  new  words  upon  the  board,  drilling  the  children  upon  them 
as  she  proceeded.  If  a  word  possessed  any  particular  difficulty  she 
broke  it  up  into  its  phonic  elements  and  assisted  the  pupils  in  attacking 
it  by  their  regular  method  of  word-analysis.  After  all  the  new  words 
had  been  studied  the  pupils  read  the  selection  orall}\  Following  the 
oral  reading  they  were  drilled  in  finding  certain  sentences  or  lines  upon 
being  given  such  directions  as,  "Find  the  line  which  begins  with  a  girl's 
name"  or  "Find  the  sentence  which  begins  with  'they.'"  While  the 
teacher  frequently  directed  the  pupils'  attention  to  a  better  form  of 
expression,  it  was  clear  that  the  principal  element  in  the  method  was  that 
of  word-recognition,  interpretation  receiving  secondary  consideration. 

The  children  in  the  University  school  were  instructed  by  a  radically 
different  method.  In  the  beginning  stages  great  emphasis  was  placed 
upon  securing  the  correct  reading  attitude  of  trying  to  get  meaningful 
experiences  from  the  printed  material  and  of  creating  a  desire  to  read 
by  providing  interesting  content.  The  method  proceeded  from  the 
whole  story  to  fines  and  phrases,  and  finally  to  individual  word  study. 
The  word  study  was  not  given  major  consideration  but  was  subordinated 
to  the  development  of  a  proper  reading  attitude.  In  detail,  the  early 
work  of  the  grade  was  carried  out  as  follows:  first,  the  teacher  told  the 
story  in  the  exact  words  of  the  book;  second,  she  re-told  it,  displaying  in 
the  meantime  certain  phrases  or  words  which  were  prominent  in  the 
story;   third,  the  pupils  told  the  teacher  how  to  write  the  story  on  the 


64  FUNDAMENTAL  READING  HABITS 

board;  fourth,  the  pupils  read  the  story;  and  fifth,  they  were  drilled 
upon  the  individual  lines,  phrases,  and  words.  The  general  principle 
of  the  method  is  to  get  the  entire  thought  of  the  story  first,  and  later 
subdivide  it  for  reading  practice.  By  this  method,  it  will  be  observed, 
the  pupils  will  learn  to  recognize  words  or  phrases  in  the  setting  of  the 
story  before  the  same  words  will  be  recognized  when  standing  alone  or 
when  appearing  in  a  new  paragraph. 

The  essential  points  of  contrast  between  the  two  methods  are  as 
follows.  The  public  school  emphasized  word-analysis  and  recognition 
above  everything  else,  giving  a  very  large  amount  of  drill  in  this  element. 
It  attempted  to  stimulate  an  attitude  of  interest  toward  the  selection 
to  be  read,  but  not  by  telling  it  in  the  words  of  the  text.  The  University 
school  placed  the  chief  emphasis  upon  securing  a  correct  reading  attitude 
by  which  the  child  would  look  for  the  large  meanings  in  the  selection. 
It  did  this  by  letting  the  child  memorize  the  story  before  reading  it. 
This  was  followed  by  phrase  and  word  drill,  but  with  much  less  atten- 
tion to  words  than  in  the  public  school.  The  University  school  also 
gave  more  opportunity  for  silent  study  of  the  story  to  be  read.  In 
summary,  the  public-school  method  emphasized  mastery  of  mechanics; 
the  University  school  emphasized  the  process  of  fusing  the  words  and 
phrases  into  meaningful  units. 

With  the  foregoing  description  of  methods  as  a  background,  the 
detailed  data  of  the  experiments  with  the  first-grade  children  will  be 
focused  upon  four  problems  of  reading,  namely,  (i)  the  development 
of  a  proper  reading  attitude;  (2)  the  growth  of  the  fundamental  elements 
of  span  of  recognition,  speed  of  recognition,  and  regular  procedure  along 
the  printed  fines;  (3)  the  problem  of  word-recognition;  and  (4)  the 
development  of  a  rhythmic  expression  or  interpretation  in  thought  units 
as  contrasted  with  the  mechanical  pronunciation  of  words. 

DEVELOPMENT   OF   A   CORRECT   READING   ATTITUDE 

One  of  the  first  problems  in  teaching  reading  is  the  production  of  a 
correct  attitude  toward  printed  material.  The  goal  of  maturity  in  this 
respect  is  an  attitude  which  considers  reading  as  a  process  of  getting 
ideas  about  something,  the  words  of  the  printed  page  giving  those  ideas. 
For  the  mature  subject  reading  consists  of  the  fusing  of  words  into 
thought  units,  with  the  attention  primarily  focused  upon  the  interpreta- 
tion of  the  meaning.  The  process  of  reading,  therefore,  is  more  than 
the  successive  pronunciation  of  words,  which  may  or  may  not  be  accom- 
panied by  the  mental  fusion  of  the  words  into  thought  units. 


DETAILED  ANALYSIS  OF  FIRST-GRADE  READING  65 

As  soon  as  the  child  enters  school  he  is  forced  to  take  some  attitude 
toward  reading.  The  attitude  he  takes  may  resemble  or  differ  from  that 
which  is  characteristic  of  maturity,  but  regardless  of  this  the  pupil  looks 
at  the  process  of  reading  in  one  way  or  another.  Methods  of  teaching 
are  of  course  interested  in  developing  a  proper  attitude,  but  the  concepts 
of  just  what  is  the  proper  attitude  at  this  initial  stage  differ.  The  one 
fact  which  can  be  emphasized  is  that  regardless  of  what  attitude  the 
pupil  may  assume  at  first,  he  must  ultimately  develop  the  attitude  which 
is  characteristic  of  maturity — reading  by  thought  rather  than  by  word 
units. 

Recognizing  the  outcomes  of  developing  habits  of  reading  by  words 
rather  than  by  thoughts,  methods  of  teaching  reading  have  recently 
been  emphasizing  the  use  of  the  sentence  rather  than  the  word  as  the 
unit.  While  the  aim  of  this  plan  is  to  develop  a  mature  attitude  toward 
reading,  certain  difficulties  are  encountered  in  practice.  In  the  anxiety 
to  have  the  pupils  get  meaning  in  sentence  units  one  is  apt  to  forget 
that  the  mental  process  by  which  one  does  this  after  he  has  learned  to 
read  is  quite  different  from  the  mental  process  involved  during  the  period 
of  learning.  The  beginning  pupil's  perceptual  units  are  small  and 
unorganized.  Seeing  a  sentence  is  one  thing  for  the  mature  reader  and 
quite  another  for  the  beginner.  The  result  often  is  that  in  a  pupil's 
haste  to  see  the  sentence  as  a  whole  he  overlooks  the  elements  of  which 
it  is  constituted.     He  gets  blurred  and  inaccurate  meanings. 

One  of  the  methods  of  attempting  to  produce  this  sentence-reading 
attitude  is  for  the  teacher  first  to  tell  the  story  in  verbatim  form,  after 
which  the  pupils  read  it.  In  many  cases  the  pupils  get  from  this  method, 
not  an  attitude  of  regarding  a  sentence  as  the  expression  of  a  single 
thought,  but  rather  a  habit  of  first  learning  the  sentence  or  story  from 
hearing  the  teacher  tell  it,  and  then  reciting  it  from  memory  while  their 
eyes  roam  at  random  over  the  page.  They  do  not  develop  habits  of 
following  the  words  in  their  regular  order.  They  get  a  bird's-eye  view 
of  the  printed  lines  and  fail  to  learn  that  a  fused  meaning  of  a  sentence 
can  only  be  secured  from  noting  the  particular  combination  of  the 
words. 

In  order  to  furnish  concrete  examples  of  the  various  reading  attitudes 
taken  by  beginning  pupils,  an  analysis  will  be  made  of  a  number  of  indi- 
vidual cases. 

The  first  photographic  records  of  the  subjects  from  Grade  I  B  were 
taken  during  the  seventh  week  of  school.  It  was  the  purpose  of  the 
writer  to  secure  records  showing  the  earliest  type  of  eye-movements.     It 


66  FUNDAMENTAL  READING  HABITS 

wa^^aot  expected  that  these  children  would  do  very  much  reading  at 
this  stage.  The  principal  interest  lay  in  seeing  how  their  attitudes  and 
their  habits  were  related.  Up  to  this  point  the  chief  aim  of  the  class- 
room had  been  to  develop  the  attitude  that  reading  was  a  process  of 
getting  whole  units  of  thought  from  printed  words. 

The  eye-movement  records  show  that  in  this  first  test  there  were 
only  five  of  the  I  B  pupils  who  followed  the  words  in  their  reading,  pro- 
ceeding regularly  from  line  to  line.  The  other  five  noted  at  the  begin- 
ning that  the  selection  was  the  familiar  "Little  Red  Hen"  story  and 
thereupon  repeated  it  from  memory,  letting  their  eyes  move  over  the  page 
without  regard  to  the  printed  words.  It  is  of  interest  to  note  that  they 
did  this  for  both  oral  and  silent  reading.  They  had  not  yet  reached  the 
stage  of  maturity  where  regular  eye-movements  give  evidence  that  the 
reader  is  getting  meaning  from  the  printed  page  rather  than  from 
memory.  The  fact  that  five  pupils  made  no  attempt  to  follow  the  lines 
indicates  that  the  reading  attitude  which  this  method  aims  ultimately 
to  secure  had  not  been  approached  during  the  first  seven  weeks  of 
school. 

The  oral-reading  record  of  Subject  i88,  a  pupil  in  Grade  I  A  appears 
in  Plate  VI.  This  subject  made  only  17  eye-movements  in  "reading" 
the  entire  seven  lines  of  the  "Little  Red  Hen"  story.  These  fiijStions 
are  plotted  accurately  in  regard  to  their  horizontal  distribution,  but 
since  the  eye  did  not  follow  the  lines  it  was  impossible  to  determine 
accurately  the  vertical  location  of  the  fixations.  They  are  plotted, 
therefore,  on  a  single  horizontal  line,  but  were  in  reality  distributed 
vertically  at  various  points  up  and  down  the  page.  The  fact  of  interest 
in  this  record  is  that  the  pupil  repeated  the  entire  selection  without 
attempting  to  follow  the  lines,  taking  the  attitude  of  reciting  from  memory 
rather  than  that  of  ascertaining  the  meaning  from  the  printed  page. 

Plate  VII  gives  the  silent-reading  record  of  Subject  187.  The  pupil 
was  directed  to  re-read  the  same  selection  of  seven  lines  silently,  and  to 
tell  the  experimenter  as  soon  as  he  had  finished.  He  carried  out  the 
direction  in  a  serious  manner,  informing  the  experimenter  when  he  had 
completed  the  reading.  His  eye-movement  record  reveals  quite  clearly 
what  had  been  going  on  in  his  mind.  He  had  made  1 1  fixations  for  the 
entire  seven  lines.  These,  again,  are  shown  on  a  single  horizontal  dis- 
tribution since  it  was  impossible  to  determine  with  precision  the  vertical 
location  of  the  fixations.  Evidently  the  silent-reading  process  for  this 
pupil  meant  a  silent  repetition  of  the  selection,  merely  looking  at  the 
page   in   the  meantime.     The   fact   that   some   of   his  fixations   were 


DETAILED  ANALYSIS  OF  FIRST-GRADE  READING  67 


PLATE  VI 


4     l5        IS 


2 

c 

> 

T            1 

a               to    1 

.    9 

5  It      1     « 

14.        ; 

iT 

& 

2 

1        ( 

C 

So             9 

J  & 

"5          3 

5  4  2 

II 

Oral  reading  by  Subject  188,  Grade  I  B 


68 


FUNDAMENTAL  READING  HABITS 


PLATE  \TI 


Silent'reading  by  Subject  1S7,  Grade  I  B 


DETAILED  ANALYSIS  OF  FIRST-GRADE  READING  69 

extremely  long  is  indicative  of  his  mental  processes.  These  long  fixations 
occur  when  the  subject  is  concerned  with  some  inner  thought  process 
rather  than  with  the  perceptual  stimuli.  They  indicate  that  he  was 
spending  his  energy  in  trying  to  repeat  from  memory  rather  than  in 
examining  the  words  before  him.  These  long,  slowly  shifting  eye- 
fixations  are  of  the  same  type  as  those  which  occur  in  arithmetic  addition 
when  a  difficult  combination  is  encountered,  and  where  the  mental 
process  is  concerned  not  with  the  perception  of  the  stimuli  but  rather 
with  the  internal  thought  activity  needed  for  reaching  the  proper  answer. 
In  the  case  of  Subject  187,  his  record  indicates  that  he  was  getting  his 
cues  for  whatever  reading  was  going  on,  not  from  the  printed  page  before 
him,  but  rather  from  his  memory  of  the  story  which  he  had  previously 
learned  in  class.  Certainly  this  is  not  the  reading  attitude  which  the 
teacher  aims  ultimately  to  secure. 

The  record  of  one  more  subject,  Number  i8g,  will  be  presented  for 
purposes  of  further  illustration.  In  his  first  test,  November  11,  1921, 
this  subject  recognized  that  the  material  was  the  "Little  Red  Hen" 
story,  and  he  accordingly  made  a  stumbling  attempt  to  repeat  it.  He 
did  not  remember  the  story  verbatim  and  had  considerable  difficulty. 
His  eye-movements  covered  the  page  apparently  at  random.  In  silent 
reading  of  the  same  selection  he  evidently  repeated  the  process.  His 
eye  record,  plotted  on  a  single  horizontal  line,  is  shown  in  Plate  VIII. 
He  made  a  total  of  13  fixations,  several  of  them  being  long  in  duration. 

A  second  record  was  taken  of  this  subject  on  January  ninth,  using 
the  modification  of  the  "Little  Red  Hen"  story  which  was  shown  in 
Plate  III.  In  reading  this  selection  orally  he  made  a  total  of  35  fixation 
pauses,  but  his  eyes  still  showed  no  consistent  following  of  the  lines. 
He  apparently  made  an  attempt  to  attach  his  memory  of  the  story  in 
its  original  form  to  the  modified  form  before  him,  succeeding  only  par- 
tially. His  dictaphone  record,  which  should  be  compared  with  the 
selection  in  Plate  III,  read  as  follows: 

One one  day found  a  seed.     It  was  a  wheat 

seed.  She  said,  "Who  will  plant  the  seed?"  The  pig  said,  "Not  I."  The 
cat  said,  "Not  I."     The  little  red  hen  said,  "I  will  then."     And  she  did. 

A  third  record  was  taken  of  this  subject's  reading  on  February  first. 
At  this  time  the  same  story  was  used  as  in  the  second  test.  His  record 
showed  that  he  was  now  following  the  printed  lines  while  reading, 
although  in  a  very  irregular  fashion.  His  dictaphone  record  indicated, 
however,  that  he  was  still  attempting  to  get  the  meaning  more  from  mem- 
ory than  from  the  printed  story  before  him.     He  was  unable  to  recognize 


FUNDAMENTAL  READING  HABITS 


PLATE  VIII 

10         in     7  i   I  Z         4    3    5         13     9 


UL 


TtT 


ji  fo  T      13       3*  -^  5C  I?  7T    44     13   19  1012. 

Silent  reading  by  Subject  189,  Grade  I  B 


DETAILED  ANALYSIS  OF  FIRST-GRADE  READING  71 

some  of  the  simplest  words.  His  reading,  as  recorded  by  the  dictaphone, 
was  as  follows: 

One  day  a  —  a  little  red  hen  found  a  —  some  seed.     She  —  she  said 

to the  hen  said,  "Not  I."     [No  —  no  —  What  is  that  next  word 

there?]     "No,  I  will  plant  this  seed."     She  planted to  the  pig.     "Not 

I,"  said  the  pig.  The  httle  red  hen  said,  "Who  will  plant  the  seed?"  The 
pig  said,  "Not  I."     The  cat  said,  "Not  I." 

At  this  point  he  seemed  so  hopelessly  confused  that  he  was  told  not  to 
read  further. 

At  the  end  of  his  first  semester  this  boy  was  still  in  the  most  immature 
stage  of  reading.  His  records  show  that  he  was  just  beginning  to 
follow  the  lines  consistently;  that  his  average  fixation  time  for  silent 
reading  had  been  reduced  from  27.9  twenty-fifths  of  a  second  at  the 
first  test  to  an  average  of  15.8  at  the  last  test,  that  he  was  unable  inde- 
pendently to  attack  some  very  simple  words,  and  that  he  was  unable 
to  free  himself  from  his  early  habit  of  depending  upon  his  memor\^  of 
the  story  rather  than  upon  the  printed  words. 

As  further  evidence  of  the  eflfect  of  memorizing  the  stories,  the  following 
dictaphone  records  are  given,  showing  the  reading  of  the  same  paragraph 
by  four  pupils  from  Grade  I B  after  sixteen  weeks  of  school  experience. 

For  convenience  of  comparison,  the  paragraph  as  it  actually  appeared 
is  reproduced.     It  reads  as  follows: 

One  day  a  red  hen  found  a  little  wheat  seed.  She  said  to  the  dog,  "Wil^ 
you  plant  my  wheat  seed?"  The  dog  said,  "No,  I  will  not  plant  your  little 
wheat  seed."  The  hen  said  to  the  pig,  "Will  you  plant  my  wheat  seed?" 
The  pig  said,  "Yes,  I  will  plant  your  seed." 

Subject  187  read  it  in  this  fashion: 

One  day  a  red  hen  found  —  found  a  little  wheat  seed.  She  called  —  [no] 
she  called  —  said  —  [no]  -  she  called  —  said  -  -  said  —  to  the  pig,  "Will 

you  plant  my  httle  seed?"     The  dog  said,  "No,  I  will  plant I  will  — 

will,"  said  the  Httle  red  hen.     The the  hen  said  to  the  pig  —  the  dog, 

"  WiU  you  plant  the  seed  ?"  The  —  the  hen  —  the  —  the  —  the  —  [no] 
the  —  the  pig  said,  "I  won't."     The  —  the  — 

Subject  191: 

One  day  —  one  day  —  one  day  a  little  red  hen  found  a  wheat  seed. 
She  said,  "Who  will  plant  this  wheat  seed  —  said  who  will  plant  this  wheat 
seed."     "Not  I,"  said  the  cat.     "Not  I,"  said  the  pig.     "Not  I,"  said  the 

dog.     "Not  I,"  said  -  -  [no]  -  -  "Not  I,"  said "  Not  I,"  said  the  duck. 

"Not -not  I,"  said  the  --  "Not  I,"  said  the  goose.  "Not  I,"  said  the  duck- 
"Then  I  will,"  said  the  Httle  red  hen.     And  she  did. 


72  FUXD.AJMEXTAL  READING  H-\BITS 

Subject  192  showed  such  similarity  in  reading  at  her  second  and 
third  periods  of  testing  that  both  records  will  be  given.  On  January 
ninth  she  read  as  follows: 

One  day  there a a  red  hen  found  a  seed.     It said 

"This  is  a  wheat  seed."  So  she  did  —  she  said  —  "Who  will  plant  the 
seed?"  The  dog  said,  "I  won't."  The  pig  said,  "I  won't."  The  Httle  red 
hen  said,  "I  will,"  and  so  she  did. 

On  February  second  she  read  the  same  paragraph  in  this  manner: 

One  day  a  red  hen  found  a  wheat  seed.  She  said,  "Who  will  plant  the 
seed?"  The  dog  said,  "I  won't."  The  pig  said,  "I  won't."  The  cat  said, 
"I  won't."     So  the  httle  red  hen  said,  "I  will." 

Twelve  pupils  from  Grade  I  B  were  used  in  this  third  series  of  tests. 
When  five  of  the  twelve  give  such  readings  as  have  just  been  presented, 
it  is  clear  that  a  considerable  period  of  time  is  required  to  estabUsh  the 
attitude  of  securing  meaning  from  the  printed  page  by  the  use  of  a 
method  which  first  tells  the  story  to  the  children  in  the  exact  words 
of  the  book.  The  tendency  of  the  pupils  is  to  depend  upon  their  mem- 
ory of  the  story  rather  than  their  perception  of  the  printed  lines.  All 
of  the  pupils  from  the  I  B  grade  of  the  public  school,  where  the  method 
emphasized  word-recognition  but  did  not  tell  the  story  in  the  exact 
words,  followed  the  lines  and  read  the  story  as  it  was  printed.  However, 
most  of  them  read  it  in  a  very  mechanical  fashion,  without  giving  any 
evidence  from  their  expression  that  they  appreciated  the  meaning  of 
the  story.  The  University  I  B  group  displayed  a  lively  interest  in  the 
content,  even  though  they  frequently  varied  from  the  printed  text.  . 

By  means  of  these  detailed  case  analyses  the  immediate  outcomes 
of  two  contrasting  methods  have  been  shown.  If  the  primary  emphasis 
is  placed  upon  word-recognition  the  outcome  is  the  ability  to  follow  the 
printed  lines,  to  pronounce  all  the  words,  but  to  display  no  vital  concern 
for  the  content.  It  produces  what  is  familiarly  called  word  reading. 
This  is  not  the  complete  attitude  of  the  mature  reader.  The  method 
goes  far  in  the  development  of  word-recognition,  an  element  which  all 
pupils  must  ultimately  develop.  It  leaves  much  to  be  done  in  securing 
an  attitude  of  reading  by  thought  wholes. 

On  the  other  hand,  when  the  chief  emphasis  is  placed  upon  the 
thought  and  the  story  is  memorized  the  pupils  do  develop  a  vital  concern 
for  the  content,  but  develop  more  slowly  in  word-recognition  and  in 
ability  to  follow  the  lines. 

Neither  method  should  be  judged  by  the  outcomes  at  the  end  of  the 
first  semester.     The  purpose  of  analysis  is  to  indicate  that  the  two 


DETAILED  ANALYSIS  OF  FIRST-GRADE  READING  73 

methods  start  out  by  different  routes,  one  emphasizing  words,  the  other 
emphasizing  content.  Ultimately  the  pupils  must  become  mature  in 
both.  The  important  fact  is  that  the  teacher  recognize  that  the  adop- 
tion of  either  method  means  the  carrying  over  of  the  undeveloped 
elements  to  a  higher  level  in  school.  The  selection  of  a  method  resolves 
itself  into  the  question  of  which  elements  shall  be  developed  first  and 
what  shall  be  the  rate  of  development.  Ultimately  all  the  fundamental 
elements  must  be  carried  to  maturity. 

f-  INITIATION    OF   PROPER    EYE-MOVEMENT   HABITS 

Since  the  plans  of  the  first-grade  experiment  provided  for  a  series 
of  records  taken  at  three  different  stages  of  both  Grade  I  B  and  Grade 
I  A,  it  was  thought  that  there  would  be  available  sufficient  data  to  show 
growth  curves  at  this  level  based  upon  medians  for  the  three  types  of 
eye-movement  habits.  However,  the  wide  variabiHty  in  the  records, 
together  with  the  fact  that  some  of  the  subjects  were  irregular,  makes 
the  construction  of  such  growth  curves  undesirable.  The  number  of 
cases  at  each  point  would  be  too  small  to  give  reliable  medians.  Some 
of  the  records  will,  therefore,  be  treated  in  a  detailed  analytical  manner, 
with  no  attempt  to  give  a  quantitative  statistical  treatment  to  the 
whole  series. 

The  particular  problem  of  this  section  of  the  chapter  is  to  discover 
the  change  in  the  character  of  eye-movement  habits  during  the  first 
school  year.  The  development  during  the  first  six  weeks  has  already' 
been  discussed  in  the  preceding  pages.  It  is  clear  that  while  some 
subjects  develop  eye-movement  habits  consistent  with  the  reading 
process  by  the  seventh  week,  others  have  not  yet  learned  to  follow  the 
lines  carefully.  For  those  pupils  who  do  follow  the  printed  lines,  there 
is  evidence  of  much  irregularity,  the  eyes  frequently  going  beyond 
the  end  of  the  lines  or  swinging  back  too  far  at  the  beginning  of  a 
new  line. 

The  comparison  of  the  oral  reading  of  the  first  test  with  that  at  the 
end  of  the  thirteenth  week  of  the  semester  is  vitiated  by  the  fact  that 
even  the  I  A  pupils  repeated  the  story  very  largely  from  memory,  follow- 
ing the  lines  only  in  a  cursory  fashion.  This  fact  is  clearly  showTi  by 
comparing  the  average  number  of  fixations  per  line  for  the  first  and 
second  readings  by  the  pupils  in  Grade  I  A.  It  should  be  remembered 
that  the  selection  used  in  the  second  test  was  simply  a  rearrangement  of 
the  first  story  in  an  unfamiliar  form,  most  of  the  pupils  knowing  the 
first  form  from  memory  while  the  second  was  new  to  all. 


74 


FUXD.A3IENTAL  READING  HABITS 


Table  X\T  shows  the  average  number  of  fixations  per  line  for  the 
eight  subjects  who  took  both  tests.  In  every  case  except  one  there  was 
an  increase  in  the  number  of  eye-movements  per  line  in  the  second  record. 
Since  the  growth  curves  in  chapter  ii  have  shown  that  the  development 
of  maturity  in  reading  tends  to  reduce  the  number  of  fixations,  these 
data  would  make  it  appear  that  the  pupils  were  less  mature  in  the 
thirteenth  week  of  the  second  semester  than  in  the  seventh  week. 
However,  the  true  interpretation,  when  one  considers  the  fact  that  the 
pupils  had  memorized  the  first  selection,  is  that  the  second  test  more 
nearly  represents  their  ability  to  get  meaning  from  a  printed  page, 
whereas  the  first  test  clearly  indicates  that  they  were  relying  not  so 
much  upon  their  perception  of  the  words  of  the  story  as  upon  their 

TABLE  X\T 

Average  Number  of  Fixations  per  Line  in  First 
AND  Second  Tests — First-Grade  Subjects 


Subject 

Average  Number  of 

Fixations  per  Line  in 

First  Test 

Average  Number  of 

Fixations  per  Line  in 

Second  Test 

lO 

19.0 
8.0 
13.0 
16.0 
12.7 
19.0 
14.0 
8.0 

29.4 

13-3 
16.8 

II 

12 

I^ 

24.0 

14 

12.2 

182 

193 

194 

24.2 
18.8 

9-4 

memory  of  it.  The  wide  variation  in  the  average  number  of  fixations 
per  line  in  the  second  test  is  interesting.  Subject  10  makes  more  than 
three  times  as  many  fixations  per  line  as  Subject  194,  yet  both  are  in  the 
same  reading  class. 

When  the  records  of  a  single  subject  are  followed  for  the  three  differ- 
ent tests,  it  is  found  that  there  is  again  much  individual  variation. 
Some  make  rapid  progress  in  the  development  of  eye-movement  habits, 
while  others  show  only  small  gains.  Also  it  is  of  interest  to  note  that 
for  some  subjects  the  gain  is  primarily  in  size  of  recognition-span;  for 
others  it  is  only  in  a  reduction  of  the  average  fixation  time;  while  for 
some  there  is  improvement  in  both. 

Subject  II,  a  pupil  in  Grade  I  A,  shows  a  clear  gain  in  regard  to 
average  fixation  time  for  both  oral  and  silent  reading.  Her  average 
fixation  time  for  the  three  consecutive  tests  is  22.2,  17.5,  and  11. 9 
for  oral  reading,  and  18. i,  13.4,  and  10.8  for  silent  reading.     This  repre- 


DETAILED  AN-\LYSIS  OF  FIRST-GRADE  READING  75 

sents  a  consistent  improvement  of  a  considerable  amount  for  one  semes- 
ter. Her  records  failed  to  show  any  marked  improvement,  however, 
in  average  number  of  fixations  per  line  or  in  average  number  of  regressive 
movements  per  line.  The  three  eye-movement  records  of  this  subject 
are  shown  in  Plates  IX,  X,  and  XI  for  the  first,  second,  and  third  tests, 
respectively.  In  regard  to  number  of  fixations  per  line  the  record  of 
the  second  test  is  better  than  that  of  the  third  test. 

Subject  13,  also  in  Grade  I  A,  made  consistent  improvement  in 
all  three  eye-movement  habits.  His  silent  reading  records  show  that 
his  averages  were,  in  the  three  tests  respectively,  for  the  average  number 
of  fixations  per  line,  20.0,  17.0,  and  1,3.5;  ^^^  average  duration  of  fixa- 
tions, 22.0,  15.0,  and  1 1.5;  and  for  average  number  of  regressive  move- 
ments per  line,  8.0,  4.5,  and  4.0.  The  silent  reading  eye-movement 
record  of  his  first  test  is  shown  in  Plate  XII,  while  sections  of  that  of 
the  second  and  third  tests  are  shown  in  Plate  XIII.  The  type  of  devel- 
opment which  this  subject  exhibits  shows  rapid  progress  toward  maturity 
in  the  elements  measured  by  eye-movements. 

Two  records  will  be  presented  to  illustrate  the  wide  variations  found 
in  the  first  grade  in  oral  reading.  Plate  XIV  gives  the  eye-movements 
of  Subject  194,  one  of  the  most  mature  first-grade  pupils  tested.  This 
boy  had  learned  to  read  at  home  and  consequently  found  the  reading 
work  of  the  first  grade  very  easy.  This  oral  record  was  taken  at  the  time 
of  the  second  test.  It  shows  an  average  of  9.4  fixations  per  line,  an 
average  of  9.7  twenty-fifths  of  a  second  per  fixation,  and  an  average  of 
0.8  regressive  movements  per  line.  The  degree  of  maturity  of  this 
subject  is  at  once  apparent  when  these  averages  are  compared  with  the 
grade  medians  exhibited  by  the  tables  in  chapter  ii. 

As  contrasted  with  this  subject,  the  oral-reading  record  of  a  very 
immature  reader  is  given  in  Plate  XV.  In  the  second  test  this  subject 
made  an  average  of  29.4  fixations  per  line,  an  average  of  18.3  twenty- 
fifths  of  a  second  per  fixation,  and  an  average  of  8.6  regressive  move- 
ments per  line.  A  large  amount  of  prompting  was  necessary  to  enable 
him  to  read  the  story  in  any  fashion  at  all.  His  utter  confusion  in  several 
lines  shows  that  he  is  entirely  lacking  in  habits  of  dealing  independently 
with  new  words.  The  word  "said"  caused  confusion  each  time  it  was 
encountered.  The  word  "yes"  was  unfamiliar,  as  ♦were  half  a  dozen 
other  simple  words  in  the  paragraph.  Records  were  secured  from  this 
subject  at  each  of  the  test  dates,  and  all  were  exceedingly  immature  in 
their  characteristics.  His  reading  was  very  erratic,  even  within  the 
same  selection.     The  most  noticeable  deficiency  was  his  small  visual 


\ 


76  FUNDAMENTAL  READING  HABITS 

vocabulary,  and  his  entire  inability  to  cope  with  a  new  word.  This 
subject  is  unable  to  begin  to  keep  pace  with  Subject  194  and  the  other 
more  mature  readers  in  his  class.  It  seems  doubtful  whether  he  is 
being  helped  by  the  regular  class  work.  Certain  it  is  that  in  at  least 
four  fundamental  reading  elements,  namely,  span  of  recognition,  duration 
of  fixations,  regularity  of  eye-movements,  and  word-recognition,  he  is 
extremely  immature.  It  would  seem  that  here  is  an  excellent  example 
of  a  subject  who  needs  specific  rather  than  general  teaching. 

Two  other  subjects  from  the  same  grade  may  be  used  to  illustrate 
the  extent  of  difference  in  silent-reading  abiUty.  Subject  15,  whose 
eye-movement  record  is  shown  in  Plate  XVI,  ranks  as  a  very  mature 
reader  for  Grade  I  A.  He  made  an  average  of  7.0  fixations  per  line,  an 
average  of  6.8  twenty-fifths  of  a  second  per  fixation,  and  an  average 
of  0.8  regressive  movements  per  line. 

As  compared  with  the  subjects  just  described,  Subject  19,  whose 
record  appears  in  Plate  XVII,  has  much  less  mature  habits  of  reading. 
Her  eye-movement  averages  for  silent  reading  were  20.8  fixations  per  line, 
10.3  twenty-fifths  of  a  second  per  fixation,  and  6.0  regressive  movements 
per  line.  This  subject  is  a  little  Chinese  girl  from  the  public-school 
group.  A  general  characteristic  of  this,  as  of  many  of  the  public- 
school  records,  is  that  the  subject  moves  along  in  a  series  of  small  units 
from  one  end  of  the  line  to  the  other.  Although  she  makes  an  average 
of  6  regressive  movements  per  line,  nearly  all  are  small.  If  the  serial 
order  of  the  eye-fixations  is  examined  closely  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
reading  process  for  this  subject  consists  of  creeping  along  very  slowly 
from  the  beginning  to  the  end  of  the  line,  with  a  frequent  insertion  of  short 
backward  movements.  Such  eye-movements  indicate  that  the  mental 
processes  of  the  reader  are  chiefly  concerned  with  a  detailed  analysis  of 
words.  Grasping  the  thought  in  large  units  is  impossible  with  such  a 
narrow  recognition-span  as  this  subject  possesses. 

The  type  of  reading  exhibited  by  Subject  19  is  the  direct  result  of 
an  overemphasis  upon  word-recognition.  Reading  for  this  subject 
consists  of  the  successive  analysis  of  word  after  word,  with  little  atten- 
tion to  the  problem  of  fusing  the  words  into  large  units  of  meaning. 
Pupils  taught  by  such  a  method  seldom  miss  a  word.  No  such  difficulties 
as  were  exhibited  by  Subject  10  in  Plate  XV  appear  with  a  method 
placing  much  emphasis  upon  word-analysis.  But  it  does  produce  a 
mechanical,  word-pronouncing  process  which  must  ultimately  be  over- 
come before  maturitv  is  reached. 


DETAILED  ANALYSIS  OF  FIRST-GRADE  READING  77 


PLATE  IX 


r     ^       A^    I  5     to   (.     t         19 

A  boy  had   a 

II     M      3     3  18    la  Zl    3         re.  3f 

I  3       2     <•      4   5  T 

The   dog  ran  inp^Hpe  vpids. 

I4  23   13       8      20        12    20 

3  11  15  r 

I  IT    20  (4  2    10         ■*    I    ^        12  S    («  13  J      14    18  19 

ThWUt^^rinUi^^  Jo^.j 

2T     3     2      30  Ig    10      33 1    2    15  I?    12  33  23  |5    g  ^J 

10  8  1+    15 


I  2    5  4     6>      3    T  8 


He  wanted    rche   ddg^scp-go  hope. 

er  34  I  24.  34  &  >o     33 

5  fe        I     4-       T        2        38       9  10  »i      <2  13 

But   tbe  dok  ffould  not  \go  home, 

T  10       4«    24     3J       lo     4«  15     «  3  15       l«  12. 

I  a  3 

The  little  boy  aaid. 


21 

,5  3         2 


18        4,      r       20 «  13  7  a        II 


<g    lit  II     15   17      T  2e      (8        a   14    2a    13  (5  23  (2 


le   wiihout 


my  (  og. 


20  15      25         3   II     4r    3 


13   29       3     22 
25     24    23    °2«         31  32  zc  35  34 


The-ft^tfres^bokr  b^ga^t^  to 

55  3       (i  ir        ?2  2£ 


13  22   3 

2r 


cry, 

II  15 

10 

Silent  reading  by  Subject  11,  Grade  I  A,  first  test 


78 


FUNDAMENTAL  READING  HABITS 


PLATE  X 


2       3     <.74      «  5  10      9      I  II  li  13    l5    14 


A  )Gr 


lac  a 


litte 


cog. 


One 


dav^ihe  dog 


I5I5T      IT  K.    33      9  U     3,0  22  go       2|     25    14 


2  3      14  5 

ran  into  tlie  woods. 


10  22     T  I 

I         2      3 


dog. 


<•  7  s       10     a  la    11 

The  hoy  lan  after  the 

'I  14  I  a  2,T     II       7  i'7    3 

5  <t  7  S  S  10  M 


He  wanted  th^  little  iog  t)  go 


hotne 


3      7    10  ii  ir     30         13  It        to      ij 

2  3     14  5  T     fc     12  »       3    II  13/0  14 


But 


the 


4 


og  wouli  no;  ^o 


•<•  •«    4  3  13  i      7     IS  %       6    23  Ii 


hone. 


The 


little 

27         T 


I  ? 


boy 


said,   "I 


5      II  10    <i  «    9    T  13  8 


h(>me 


v^ithcittr  T.y 


cannot   go 

31  Ko  9  II  I'u       T  te      9      25  12  4       II 

<•    2    S     4  I  3         (2     T  II    10      13      14    >(>  >5 


dag:- 


Jheii  hi  began  t|o^ 

10  13  15   S        5       9    42     43     10   7         fc      T    (,   z'o  J     21 

Silent  reading  by  Subject  11,  Grade  I  A,  second  test 


r-^Y' 


DETAILED  ANALYSIS  OF  FIRST-GRADE  READING  79 


e  3 


PLATE  XI 


14  i  T 


10       3 

do 


A  Ijoy  n^  a  Ifttfe  do^.    Otn^  da^  the 

14  20  St       18  IT  1+     3  iZ  13         5 

3      2    4  5   f  «  9      4        T  14    10         13    II  l4     i5     ir      l£     'S      20       is 


r^n 


into 


the 


wo 


3(ls 


Th( 


e  b()> 


rir   af  ,er  tlie 


5      C    3  11  <^  (  10     «        13     -r  «         9     13  U       b     12      J      12.     42       II 

,  a  3  +    11    5    '3   T  i  10    It  14       g    IT   i5  3  it    \(,  19  ga 


dog. 


He 


wsrtK 


tie 


littl(; 


cog 


,0  go  h^me. 


B  13  i,  (,    Za  la    T   H   i  "     I'i        &    l«   It  13         la's  t  2S. 

I     a  3  s    +        T    (o      »   «       10  II      II 


But  the  dog  would 


not   1^0   iom(!.    The  little 


5        T  "S  14    3  9      T         2X   T         IT  14         li 

3£4I  5<.T«  314  t'  12    10     il  ij 


boy  sai 


lid, 


"I   camot    ^0 

II  '    T  1+     <»  4        3  13  II 

Z    4     I    15         T     II    «       3    la        la    3    13  14 


home   \^[\  ic 

J   T   4<. 


u;  iT^y 

10     T 


do 


Then 


hi 


bega:i  to 


cry. 


+    IZ     4   IT        5     3   3      JJ    I?.       T    T     8  25 

Silent  reading  by  Subject  ii,  Grade  I  A,  third  test 


FUNDAMENTAL  READING  HABITS 


PLATE  XII 


4      2 

The   doftl  ra: 

10     13 
2      8 

S*!     9 


I  <•  10  5      T       8 

woods. 

83     T      3 


4      2  I  <•  10  5 

He   do  :  raA  intb  thi 


14(1 

I  3  i3  la 

7       T   A       S       to      tl  lO 

d;-  tat:    Rrtet  the   d 

y     <»  IS    40   13    13         13 


1}     ^Z.  4-5    3  II       9         10        4.        ?0     18 

I  He  ydted   the    iL     td^i 

to       (,  to   ZZ  IT  12    21        5       13  bo  28 


go 


23  3      t^lS   ZJ       IS    T 


og. 

22   21    T   £3 

t  oini. 

42   13     5    30 


2     fc    B        3    7      I  »    14      10  II     It  13 

^aiil    ihe   dig  would  Viot  go   home. 

135  32   6       S  ZO   II  34   S        55     3+    T  23 


4.  3      I      S   ?  6  T 

Thtlp-ttle  boy  said. 


114 


10  iS    13    Z\    II  Z-3  13 

S     H)  l2  19  Zl  lU   Z3  20        '2Z 


r 

r 


14  3    |5  |g  IZ4|  II         IT  2T   "   '*<•  34      "33  »9  3o       28   31     3a 

H   ciirii[)=t.l2:i)  Diclme  yitMiout  my  ddg. 

T   zS  irt  a+    i<i  I  5       r\  iz    5U    Z(c  5       >S  It  <,        8    i5     »*• 


3  12.  •♦-  S  <.  T  » 


Thten 


th(i  boy  beg 


n  to  (l 


ry. 


19  Z2.  IT  IT  2  3 

Silent  reading  by  Subject  13,  Grade  I  A,  first  test 


DETAILED  AN.ILYSIS  OF  FIRST-GRADE  READING 


PLATE  XIII 


5      4  4      T  3  I   «  i  10      a         M      IZ  (3        14  (5 


JUsioy  Wad 


littld  do^^. 


Ope  dav  tne  dog 


48  15    13    13  2   12  23  14  12     8         lo      20  3  16  16 


2  13  S  4  4.    T     8      S        (O  II    13       12    14  15 


raiJ  intjcJ 


the 


wo 


ids. 


:^he 


how  r 


-ap  aflttr  the 


22         &  le  17  C  18    5    10     T      l(,  9     it       li  lo  14 

IS       13 


I    10    7    II 
3         Z     3     4    «      4  (2  5    13    14         15  K»        17 


dog.    He  war  tEi(    ihi  little  jiog  to  go  hime. 


/+       5     If    'T  '+    r  15  9     6    19         24  24       8 

3  Z4    8    4 


43       55 


3oy  had  a  little 


dog. 


<o  T  g  J 


One  pay  the  dig 


the  di^ 


•4         T       Zo 


3         2         4         fc  SIT 


run 


m 


the 


woods.    The 


r+    IZ  iS  IT  i4 


3oy  ran  after  th  3 


II         S         2t>      S  4     a    i,  lb  4       II    It  t^  \<,  %  14  10  T 


£  3  I 


dog.    H(j  \/antei  the 


S3  10  T  4 


little  iog 


to  g)  hone. 


2        <•  24  24     13  3  d.  «  IS 


Silent  reading  of   Subject   13,   Grade  I A — second  test,   above;    third 
test,  below. 


82 


FUNDAMENTAL  READING  HABITS 


PLATE  XIV 


5  4       6    r  T     ?     S  3  9  10  II  12 


One  diy   i   r^d    len 


fouid  a  little  wheat 

I  5      14-  2.         g     7    Tii»  7  «  10  25 

Z  134-  5<i  Tg  3       10  II 


seed,    she 


h 


"Will  you  plant 


sail  to  th3  dog, 

ZZ  (,     IS  3  8        IZ  <i  9  ?       3  6 

2       13  4  5        t  T        «  9  lo        II 

my  \j/hbalt  seed^"    The 


3a t  seed? 

6       8     II 


15 


I  Z  3 

n3t  plant 

5  12,  II 


)g  said,  "No,  I  will 

T     IT  T        4-  T  %        IS 

<»  T  8       3     II     10 


your  little  whesit  seed."    The 


"    tL 


hen 


lO  19  lo  15  5         12.    T    )0 


3         4  S 


said  to  nTe~-^4g,_llWill  yoa  plan 


X 


a  I  3  4-5 


riy  wheat 


<>    4 


<•  r         » 


seed 


?" 


10  S  It 


The  fig  said,  ""Mes,  I  will  plant 


lo  lo  6 


your 

12 


se(}d." 

\Z  X 


Oral  reading  by  Subject  194,  Grade  I  A 


DETAILED  ANALYSIS  OF  FIRST-GRADE  READING  83 


PLATE  XV 

f_  g  3     (,      S        T      J  la         II  18  iJ  14      l»  15  t 


One 

8         10  3    i 


i  It,    t 

d  wHIeat 


«  3    I 


dajy    1  red  he:i  ::ound  a  litt 


--  "  -       -  u  4  Id 


sje^d-l    ^^'■"'1  ''^^4 


4tt       5»4  37M 


5       2        i.        T 


i#!M^1tt)i'IPi!lr 


n  4»|l  ♦<•  ♦ 

J8|      I  «        ♦« 


4    fj«        7i9l*+ 


not 


15      III         ic  13 


pla 


you]' 

i  1*  f    44 


14         i 

la  IT  II  (4  15      II 


lit:  6 

+    35       S4 


18  1}       to  V       U   24     25    " 


wheat 


seed." 


'Ih(5  len 


5     4    4  »  3  »<• 


saii 


41 31  «> 


to 


tie 


;i  jz  z4  s  3 


wheat 

5  15  ift  +r  *l  4       24    «  13        Zl"  37    4« 


pi|-,  "Will  jou  plant  my 


t/       |4     Bit      ■3'      34    »    Z4     «TJT 


2  I      3 

seed?h 

15         <•    '4 


seijc. 


"   5       «     li       r  10  13     •♦  15      ,T         t4     '1    «3    JS     «J    '4     JU     2|       »  3S 

Tie  j)iK  said  "Yes  J  vsill  ojan:  :^cLi 

,      ^    [a.    A,         i«  it4.  a         Ti     r  4     i«     8     :.      II     r  13      13  14 


4     4-    J*    45 


U  '*4  «  £1 


"      14  )      14   4  S    3    14     5  XI. 


Oral  reading  by  Subject  10,  Grade  I  A 


84 


FUNDAMENTAL  READING  HABITS 


PLATE  XVI 


2  3  + 


S  (•  T  8 


A  boy  hJd  J  little  dog     One  dal  the  dog 


8  5  l« 


T  S  4  T 


2      1  3  4      »  *  ''■ 

ran  intd)  the 


3  10  >i 


woods.    Tht  boy  ran  after  tm 


355  Ci  T45  7  5  r 


a     I  3  *  s 

dog.    He  wanied  the  little  dog  to  go 


home. 


But  ;he 

7  5 


dog  would  not  ^^o 


home.    Tlie  little 


I  8  3  +5 

hlome  without  my 

«         5  &  7    17 


I  Z  3 

boy  said,  "I  cknnDt  go 


dog."    ifhen  he  began  to  cry. 


9  S 

Silent  reading  by  Subject  15,  Grade  I  A 


DETAILED  ANALYSIS  OF  FIRST-GRADE  READING  85 


PLATE  XVH 


I  t       3      5       +     (.        «     T       S       l»  II  11  l3  14-  i5       Ito 


K  boy 


lia 


a  tfittfle  dog.    0 


ne  day 


the 


dog 


B  30      5     r      J     13        8   «        i      I'  S  20  10  JO  (,11 


2     3        14      5 


ran 


into 


the  wo 


14 1«  <•  4  3 


)ds.    Thel  i( 


t     10  II  13       14   It  15 


)oy  :'an 

U  IZ  5     10  M  j        4    14  IJ 


ai  er 


he 


2  I  3  45974S  14 


dogi    He  wpnWd  t\i  little  p(|)g 

ic  5  14      15  «         13   %      <•    J  4 


l£        l(«     19 


tc 


;yo  home. 


I4>  &      IS 


5  T       8    10        Ifc    le       IT 


3        14        4     5 


But  Ihe  dc^^  'vc  alk  n(>ti 


S      5      XT     9   7 


13  i»         '»  20  «'    25  »♦ 


go 


he 


me. 


Th6 


littk 


It  f    3?  5       4,  T       '» 
S  9  10  14 


7  J  4  3  II     t  T 


bo/ 


(•4  "I 

sLid    :^^ 


caimo. 


(•  IT         1»    II     23 

hcire 


^:o 


2«    22  il'    25 

IS  27 


5  4         13  14 

S  S   10 


t      10      (,  &   ^J 


24 


4    4«'l 


qut  m^: 
s         1; 


dog 


2      3    .1 


Then 


h£^( 


e\r,2n 


II      /2         i3       14 

to  cry, 

t     7        «       « 


14.        S  la  (e 

Silent  reading  by  Subject  19,  Grade  I  A 


86  FUNDAMENTAL  READING  HABITS 

The  cases  described  in  the  foregoing  paragraphs  show  that  the  first 
grade  is  a  period  of  decided  growth  for  the  elements  of  span  of  recognition, 
duration  of  fixations,  and  regularity  of  procedure  across  the  lines.  They 
also  indicate  the  wide  variations  which  exist  among  different  pupils  in 
these  different  elements.  These  variations  in  the  early  development  of 
eye-movement  habits  are  very  significant.  They  show  clearly  that  from 
the  very  beginning  children  are  taking  different  routes  toward  maturity. 
One  child  may  make  his  first  step  by  the  development  of  a  correct 
attitude  toward  reading  at  the  expense  of  word-recognition  or  eye- 
fixations.  Another  may  begin  by  developing  a  habit  of  giving  careful 
attention  to  the  process  of  following  the  lines,  word  by  word,  perhaps 
at  the  expense  of  gaining  larger  units  of  meaning.  Another  pupil  may 
develop  a  comparatively  high  degree  of  ability  in  word  analysis,  and  at 
first  may  even  fail  entirely  to  take  a  correct  attitude  toward  the  total 
reading  process.  Some  pupils  just  develop  broad  recognition  units; 
others  begin  by  developing  speed  in  dealing  with  narrow  units.  The 
most  characteristic  fact  about  the  first-grade  records  is  the  variation 
which  exists.  Apparently  there  is  no  single  route  which  pupils  must 
follow  in  order  to  reach  finally  mature  habits  in  reading. 

The  analysis  of  first-grade  reading  indicates  that  pupils  are  starting 
out  in  many  different  directions.  The  last  records  of  the  I  A  pupils 
show  that  the  treatment  of  the  school  has  tended  to  draw  most  of  them 
back  into  a  normal  trend  of  development.  Sooner  or  later  all  must  be 
drawn  back  in  the  general  direction  which  leads  to  maturity.  Those 
pupils  who  insist  in  going  off  on  a  tangent  will,  if  they  continue,  become 
pathological  cases  in  certain  of  the  elements  which  enter  into  reading. 
Others  less  extreme  make  up  the  class  of  poor  readers.  The  nature  of' 
poor  reading  in  the  intermediate  grades  can  be  better  understood  if  it 
is  considered  simply  as  the  natural  outcome  of  the  continuation  of  a 
wrong  start  in  certain  elements  of  the  process. 

DEVELOPMENT   OF   INDEPENDENCE    IN    WORD-RECOGNITION 

An  analysis  of  the  records  of  first-grade  children  shows  that  one  of 
their  most  common  difficulties  is  caused  by  the  lack  of  well-developed 
habits  of  word-recognition.  If  a  dictaphone  record  of  the  oral  reading 
of  a  selection  is  placed  beside  the  corresponding  eye-movement  record 
the  results  of  the  lack  of  word-recognition  are  seen  much  more  clearly. 
To  illustrate  the  results  of  this  form  of  analysis  the  records  of  four 
first-grade  cases  will  be  described. 

Plate  XVIII  gives  the  record  of  one  line  of  the  oral  reading  of  Sub- 
ject 182,  a  pupil  in  the  I A  grade.     In  this  record  the  most  noticeable 


DETAILED  ANALYSIS  OF  FIRST-GRADE  READING 


87 


PLATE  XVIII 


23  +17  Cg53 


said 


to 


jM-^g,  'Will 


you 


t9    15  7         n  30  It    T    13    at         « 


s  3 


It    i(t  n  19      20 


1  l.Ilt 


my  Si^heit 


7  35  21 

Oral  reading  by  Subject  182,  Grade  I  A 


50    4(>  d     4.0    '7 


88  FUND.\]VIENTAL  READING  HABITS 

characteristic  is  the  accumulation  of  eye-fixations  upon  the  word  "plant." 
The  dictaphone  record  shows  a  hesitation  after  the  words  "will  you" 
followed  by  a  repetition  of  those  two  words,  which  gave  time  for  the 
careful  examination  of  "plant"  before  its  pronunciation  was  attempted. 
This  is  a  typical  response  to  a  mild  difficulty.  The  word  was  mastered, 
but  not  without  a  careful  analysis. 

Plate  XTX  gives  one  line  from  the  oral  record  of  Subject  2,  a  pupil 
in  Grade  I  B.  The  dictaphone  record  of  this  line  shows  that  the  sub- 
ject omitted  the  word  "little"  and  repeated  the  word  "the."  The 
period  of  confusion  began  when  the  word  "wheat"  was  encountered  at 
the  ninth  fixation.  In  the  attempt  to  recognize'  "wheat"  and  "seed" 
the  word  "little"  was  forgotten,  the  reading  of  the  whole  line  being  con- 
fused. This  line  furnishes  a  good  example  of  the  fact  that  very  often 
when  an  unfamiliar  word  is  encountered  it  not  only  causes  difi&culty 
in  the  recognition  of  that  word  but  radically  modifies  the  subject's 
reading  habits  for  the  whole  line.  This  subject  read  the  two  preceding 
lines  in  9  and  14  fixations,  respectively,  and  the  two  following  lines  in 
19  and  II  fixations.  This  general  confusion  and  breaking  down  of 
established  reading  habits  are  the  most  serious  aspects  of  the  lack  of 
word-recognition. 

One  line  from  the  oral  record  of  Subject  i,  a  very  immature  reader 
in  the  I  B  grade,  is  shown  in  Plate  XX.  This  subject  was  a  very  slow, 
deUberate  reader,  who  gave  the  same  expression  to  every  word  and 
apparently  got  httle  sense  of  meaning  from  what  she  read.  When  she 
came  to  the  word  "yes"  she  hesitated  for  4.2  seconds  before  she  pro- 
nounced it.  The  confusion  caused  is  clearly  evident  from  her  eye- 
movements. 

Plate  XXI  gives  the  eye-movement  record  of  three  lines  from  the 
oral  reading  of  Subject  12,  a  pupil  from  Grade  I  A.  The  second  line 
of  the  record  was  read  with  Httle  difficulty  and  no  hesitation.  His 
eye-movements  on  that  line  are  few  in  number  and  regular  in  order. 
As  compared  with  it,  the  record  on  the  last  two  words  of  hne  i  makes  a 
decided  contrast.  The  dictaphone  shows  the  insertion  of  an  extra 
word  between  "httle"  and  "wheat"  with  a  pause  of  6.2  seconds  between 
the  two  words.  The  word  "wheat"  was  the  particular  cause  of  the 
difiiculty.  In  the  third  line  the  same  type  of  confusion  is  evident  in 
the  eye-movement  record  when  the  words  "The  dog  said"  were  encoun- 
tered.    By  referring  to  the  dictaphone  it  was  found  that  the  pupil  read 

as  follows:  "The  dog  -  -  dog  -  -  said dog  said,  No,  I  will 

."     Between  the  first  "dog  said"  and  the  last  "dog  said"  a 


DETAILED  ANALYSIS  OF  FIRST-GRADE  READING  89 


PLATE  XIX 


29 

no: 


31  (. 


])lant 


T     21  «  iS   e: 


^our  litth 


T     <f  13  34  + 


18  ♦  3  » 


'■?■         ifc  Z<     2r  IJ  IX        «5     3  3  5t  3^ 


3     |3 


IS    32.       |i»  +       !   1.  5         4        II  54  ^ 

Oral  reading  by  Subject  2,  Grade  I  B 


19   2+  I      34      3J    3T 

len 

5      I.    -r 


90 


FUNDAMENTAL  READING  HABITS 


PLATE  XX 


so(jd?" 


he 


J        s 

a."  1    • 


id,  'K'ii5,|Uiri  |) 


31     35    It  3S    9T 

>li]it  your 


it.  3  M      »     '•        ■' 


Oral  reading  by  Subject  i ,  Grade  I  B 


DETAILED  ANALYSIS  OF  FIRST-GRADE  READING  91 


PLATE  XXI 


II  7        ,  7  ^  S  21       13    S   S    20       la   10         N       n 


brje  dav  k  reh 


5    5       3  Z3     (,  jz      s  10 


he  n  found 

II      IT 


3  t 


9     3 


14  r       8 


"3      6  3         21  8    24,  S   3      S 

5  t,        T  » 


eed.    phe'skid  to  the  dDgJ^-jv^ill^^^ 


II  13  10  »  T      3        4i         3 


4-       Z.         5    J  24    &     25 


8   »3  T  loiiii  13    !<•    22  14  i2   13 


my  whe 


!;ai 


7  12.    3  31135  10  8       fc  17    5  9 

Oral  reading  by  Subject  12,  Grade  I  A 


21    l»    2S  23 

Wo,  i  wi 

«     14-    S  34 


will 


92  FUNDAMENTAL  READING  HABITS 

period  of  7.2  seconds  elapsed.     During  that  time  the  eye  was  busily- 
engaged  in  trying  to  unravel  the  difficulties. 

In  oral  reading,  whenever  such  a  confusion  of  eye-movements  occurs, 
reference  to  the  dictaphone  record  invariably  corroborates  the  fact  that 
there  is  confusion  in  getting  the  meaning,  frequently  caused  by  lack  of 
word-recognition,  but  sometimes  caused  by  difficulties  in  recognizing 
the  thought  expressed  by  combinations  of  easy  words.  In  silent-reading 
records  there  is  no  objective  means  of  confirming  the  existence  of  diffi- 
culties apparent  in  eye-movements.  However,  there  are  no  reasons  for 
believing  otherwise  than  that  difficulties,  similar  to  those  in  oral  reading, 
exist  in  the  thought-getting  processes  of  the  reader.  In  Plate  XXII, 
which  shows  the  silent  reading  of  one  line  by  Subject  12,  it  is  difficult 
to  giv^e  any  other  interpretation  than  that  here  again  the  subject  is 
experiencing  a  considerable  amount  of  mental  confusion,  caused  at  first 
by  encountering  the  words  "little  dog." 

WORD-CALLING   VERSUS   RHYTHMIC   EXPRESSION   IN   THOUGHT   UNITS 

Attention  has  already  been  called  to  the  contrast  between  thought- 
getting  and  word-calling  processes  in  reading.  In  order  to  get  an  objec- 
tive measure  of  the  character  of  the  thought-getting  process  in  oral  read- 
ing, the  rhythm  of  the  unit  of  vocal  expression  was  measured.  To 
accomplish  this,  a  dictaphone  record  of  the  reading  was  secured,  from 
which  the  intervals  between  each  word  were  transcribed  upon  a  smoked- 
paper  kymograph  record.  In  this  manner  it  was  possible  to  determine 
the  exact  interval  between  the  pronunciation  of  each  word.  This  affords 
an  objective  index  which  shows  whether  a  subject  reads  by  grouping  the 
words  into  their  natural  thought  units,  or  whether  he  reads  by  the 
mere  process  of  word-calling. 

A  record,  secured  in  the  manner  just  described,  is  shown  in  Figure 
15  for  the  oral  reading  of  Subject  i,  a  pupil  in  Grade  I  B.  The  heavy- 
horizontal  lines  represent  sections  of  a  continuous  time-line  in  reading 
the  selection,  while  the  black  spots  represent  the  location  on  the  time- 
line of  the  pronunciation  of  the  words.  The  time  scale  is  shown  at  the 
base  of  the  diagram,  in  units  of  one-fifth  of  a  second.  The  figure  should 
be  interpreted  in  the  following  manner.  The  first  three  words  were  read 
at  equal  intervals  during  the  first  second  of  time,  then  followed  a  pause 
of  two  and  four-fifths  seconds,  after  which  the  next  four  words,  "little 
red  hen  found,"  were  read.  A  time  interval  of  three-fifths  of  a  second 
elapsed  before  the  next  words  "a  little  seed"  were  spoken.    There  was 


DETAILED  ANALYSIS  OF  FIRST-GRADE  READING 


93 


PLATE  XXII 


M         fe  13 


(J 


0?. 


wapiti  i 


8         13    II  JS 


4i     31         4-4 


it  1%    23 
tl(» 


^c  home. 


13    It  8         3     4  T 

Silent  reading  by  Subject  12,  Grade  I  A 


94 


FUNDAMENTAL  READING  HABITS 


then  a  long  pause  of  three  and  four-fifths  seconds  before  the  pupil  read 
the  words  "she  said,"  another  pause  of  three  seconds  before  the  next 


One  day        a 

little 

red  hen  found 

a 

little  seed. 

She  said 

to       the 

dog, 

"Will     you 

plant 

my    wheat 

seed?" 

The   dog 

said. 

"No. 

I 

will 

not            plant 

• 

your 

little 

wheat  seed." 

The    hen 

said 

to        the 

pig. 

"WiU          you 

plant 

my 

wheal 

seed?" 

The 

dog. 

The  pig  said, 

"YC3. 

I 

will 

plant 

your 

seed." 

1     r      1     1 

_J — 1   1   1 

1111 

1     1     1      1 

1      1      1      1 

Fig.  15. — Rhythm  of  expression  of  Subject  i,  Grade  I  B.  Time  record  in  one- 
fifth-second  units  shown  on  horizontal  axis.  Spots  show  position  of  word  pronuncia- 
tions. 


word,  etc.     Or,  to  read  the  entire  paragraph  with  a  rhythm  such  as  this 
subject  used  would  be  somewhat  as  follows: 

One  day  a little  red  hen  found  -  a  little  seed. She  said 

to  the  -  dog,  -  "Will  you  -  plant  my  wheat  -  seed  ?"  -  The  dog  -  said, 

-  "No,  -  I  -  wlU  -  not  -  plant  -  your  -  little  -  wheat  seed."     The  hen  -  said 

-  to  the  -  pig,  --  "Will  -  you  plant  -  my  -  wheat  -  seed?"  -  The  -  dog  - 
the  pig  said, "Yes,  -  I  -  will  -  plant  -  your  -  seed." 

The  rhythm  of  expression  clearly  indicates  that  this  subject  was 
reading  in  word  rather  than  thought  units.    A  comparison  of  the  voice 


DETAILED  ANALYSIS  OF  FIRST-GRADE  READING  95 


I'LATE  XXIII 


4  T 


Ul««        14     12 


One 


day 


'     1  '^  Y        I 

!€  1  hEii  lourd 


T       it    21       13 


ZZ 


?0  23 


3'T7         3<.         IJ       5     <c       % 
T  14    II   13        iz  22 


little  wheat 


)'  IT  19    r 


53      IT   '9      r    ze 


15  1^ 


to 


3      Ifc  10  If     io    18     19   jtl 

th3 


£3  24        25 


11  you 


plant 


3  13         3! 


2  3 

my  whlealt 
28      i    1 


sesc 


9  10  II 


?"    The  dog  sjid 


•4    IS      16 


14         IT  23      4     2J    ^ 


c, 


I  will 


T  T 


1        ?      3   4 


rot 


Lt 


plant  ymjr  little  whiat  s^ed." 


33      4        5  20         IZ       4. 


5  10  12       I 


3      ■'+ 


'  'heSien 


37        10    5 


said  t( 


see( 


pig 


"W.ll 


"'^OU 


5'         «>o         zfe  i      4    S     4  ? 


S       7     fc    M      3 


Pl 


10         IT  l«    15 


u 


IX 


7    fc       2' 
'^    3  4  24 


'4 


^heat 


I       4  f  * 


?"    Ti? 


3  31      J  10  (. 

2. 


:)i  r 


2?   19 


ssid, 


3Z  33         JT 


I  :!n  1  Diant 


S     11   3  ^  «    a    35      9,3  410       J    u  » 


your 


seel 


It    V 


Zb  IZ 


Oral  reading  by  Subject  i,  Grade  I  B 


96 


FUNDAMENTAL  READING  HABITS 


record  with  that  of  the  eye-movement  photograph,  which  is  shown  in 
Plate  XXIII,  throws  much  light  upon  the  reading  process  of  this  pupil. 
In  the  first  line  the  cause  of  the  long  pause  in  the  voice  record  is  better 
understood  when  one  sees  what  the  subject's  eyes  were  doing.  The  word 
"red"  evidently  presented  considerable  difficulty,  although  the  fact 
that  the  subject  inserted  "little"  before  it  suggests  that  the  association 
"little  red  hen"  was  exerting  undue  influence  and  that  the  memory  of 
the  original  story  was  causing  confusion.  The  many  fixations  in  line  2 
of  the  eye-movement  record  accompany  the  irregular  rhythm  of  the 
reading  of  that  line.  The  last  sentence  furnishes  a  fine  example  of  pure 
word-calling  with  no  rhythmic  expression.     Here  again  the  thirty-seven 


12             3      4 

S             4             T 

t               S       >l> 

II   It  13 

14     11                     lU 

ir    ft 

H      20     21 

2Z    23     ?♦ 

25    li                    2T 

21            H 

»             32     JJ 

14 

J4f          J  J 

ti. 

TT    rt    55 

40     41                    42 

43  44    45 

4i  *r  41 

t            ■ 

5(     5?           SS   5+ 

I   .1.   L.  1    , 

.1111 

_I-.l,.l .  1... 

t                1               i                1 

1    1    1    1 

o  5  10  15  20  25 

Fig.  16. — Rhythm  of  expression  of  Subject  14,  Grade  I  B.     Time  record  in  one- 
fifth-second  units  shown  on  horizontal  axis.    Spots  show  position  of  word  pronunciations. 


eye-movements  required  in  reading  the  sixth  line  indicate  the  confusion 
in  the  process  of  perception  and  the  small-unit  attack  upon  the  sentence. 
In  Figure  16  the  voice  record  of  a  mature  first-grade  reader  is  shown. 
Because  of  the  small  interval  between  many  of  the  spots  it  is  impossible 
to  print  the  corresponding  words  in  parallel.  Consequently  each  dot 
is  numbered  to  correspond  to  a  word,  the  key  for  the  numbers  being 
given  in  Plate  XXIV.  The  eye-movement  record  for  the  oral  reading 
of  this  subject  is  shown  in  Plate  XXV.  This  pupil  is  obviously  a  very 
different  type  of  reader  from  the  one  described  in  the  preceding  para- 
graph. The  arrangement  of  spots  in  Figure  16  shows  a  consistent 
attempt  to  group  the  words  into  thought  units.  By  examining  the 
successive  groupings  of  spots  it  will  be  seen  that  the  rhythm  of  expression 
was  as  follows: 


DETAILED  ANALYSIS  OF  FIRST-GRADE  READING  97 


PLATE  XXIV 
I  23+5  67S  9 

One  day  a  red  hen  found  a  little  wheat 


16  II  IS       13      14-         15  14         17  1% 

seed.    She  said  to  the  dog,  "Will  you  plant 


13  20  21  22        23        24  25     24     27 

my  wheat  seed?"    The  dog  said,  "No,  I  will 


28  29  30  31  32  35  34        75 

not  plant  your  little  wheat  seed."    The  hen 


36       37    38       39  40        41  42         43  44 

said  to  the  pig,  "Will  you  plant  my  wheat 


45  44     47     4«         43  50    51       52       53 

seed?"    The  pig  said,.  "Yes,  I  will  plant  your 


54 
seed." 

Index  numbers  for  words  in  first-grade  selection 


98 


FUNDAMENTAL  READING  HABITS 


PLATE  XXV 


e      3  4 

One  day   i  rvd  hen  fo 

13         (o  ) 

2      ^ 


5  6  T 

and  a  little  weat 

5         13 


"3  U    I 


seed.    She  said  to   :he  dog,  "Will  you 


0        9 


II      8 


pUn: 


19  5         4       fc 


a     I  34 

niy  wheit  se 


3d?"    The 


T       8  3 


dog  said,  *No,  "  will 


10  1%    II 


0-4  10  10  4         13    4       <i  »4  < 


6        J 


II  i& 


3.         2 


not  plant 


your  Ittle  \^heat  seed." 


9  IS 


Ti  i  hen 


14   la 


•  «.  3  13  54  4  T       II  13     3     'o     8     (6 

7  12. 

■3,      I         Ji     4    (.       S    7  8  9  10  II        14    13     1?^       15 


said 


to 


tl 


8     13       5     £3 


e  pig,  "V^ill  ycu  plant  riy 


v^heat 


i       -3    5  8  3  (a  3        S      7       S 


seed?'     The  p 

24-  I 


ig  said,  " 
&         5     I 


5fes,  I  w  11 


o 


plant  yoijir 

15 


seei  i." 


10 


Oral  reading  by  Subject  14,  Grade  I  A 


DETAILED  ANALYSIS  OF  FIRST-GRADE  READING  (;g 

One  day  -  a  red  hen  -  found  -  a  little  -  wheat  seed. She  said 

to  -  the  dog,  -  "Will  you  plant  -  my  wheat  seed?"  -  The  dog  said,  -  "No, 
I  -  will  not  -  plant  -  your  -  wheat  seed."  -  Then  the  -  the  hen  -  said  -  to 
the  pig,  -  "Will  you  -  plant  my  wheat  seed ?"  -  The  pig  said,  -  "Yes,  -  I  will 
plant  -  your  seed." 

The  only  point  of  confusion  appears  at  the  end  of  line  4,  where  the 
word  "then"  was  inserted  and  the  word  "the"  was  repeated.  This  is 
the  only  place  in  the  record  where  a  marked  irregularity  of  eye- 
movement  occurs,  7  eye-fixations,  3  of  which  were  the  result  of  regressive 
movements,  being  required  to  read  the  words,  "The  hen."  Both  the 
voice  and  eye  records  indicate  a  considerable  degree  of  maturity  for 
a  first-grade  subject. 

Figure  17  shows  the  voice  records  of  thirteen  different  subjects  in 
reading  the  first  sentence  of  the  paragraph.  In  this  figure  each  horizontal 
line  represents  a  single  subject,  whose  index  number  appears  at  the  left 
of  the  line.  The  first  line  shows  the  rhythm  of  reading  for  Subject  195, 
a  university  graduate.  This  subject  read  the  sentence  rapidly  with 
the  following  type  of  word  grouping:   "One  day  —  a  red  hen  —  found 

a  little  wheat  -  seed."    The  third  line  in  the  figure,  for  Subject  13, 

shows  a  very  different  rhythm,  as  "One  day  -  a  -  hen  -  found  a 
little  -  wheat  seed."  Other  subjects  show  still  other  habits  of  word 
groupings.  Subjects  17  and  182,  for  example,  exhibiting  little  rhythm 
of  any  type,  but  instead  a  mechanical  process  of  word-calling.  The  last 
four  subjects  furnish  clear  examples  of  the  lack  of  word-recognition. 
Subject  20,  the  fourth  line  from  the  bottom,  had  to  study  4  seconds  on 
the  word  "seed,"  while  the  last  subject,  Number  181,  found  both  the 
words  "wheat"  and  "seed"  difficult. 

Frequently  the  reading  of  the  first  line  in  the  sentence  fails  to  show 
a  natural  rhythm,  due  to  the  difficulty  of  getting  adjusted  to  the  nature 
of  the  material.  Consequently,  a  spot-diagram  showing  the  word 
intervals  in  a  sentence  selected  frpm  within  a  paragraph  might  give  a 
more  valid  series  of  word  grouping.  Figure  18  gives  the  records  of 
fourteen  subjects  in  reading  one  whole  sentence  and  part  of  another 
selected  from  within  the  paragraph.  The  sentences  used  were  "The 
hen  said  to  the  pig,  'Will  you  plant  my  wheat  seed?'     The  pig  said 

"     The  words  corresponding  to  the  numbers  above  the  dots  may 

be  identified  by  reference  to  Plate  XXIV.  The  interval  between  words 
45  and  46  corresponds  to  the  interval  between  the  sentences.  This  is 
a  point  of  interest,  because  a  clear  recognition  of  sentence  thought 
units  should  produce  a  somewhat  longer  interval  here  than  at  other 


lOO 


FUNDAMENT.\L  READING  IL\BITS 


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DETAILED  ANALYSIS  OF  FIRST-GRADE  READING 

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I02  FUND.AJMENT.\L  READING  HABITS 

points  on  the  line.  The  record  of  the  adult  subject,  Number  195,  shows 
a  definite  grouping  of  words  into  thought  units,  with  a  longer  interval 
between  words  45  and  46.  The  record  of  Subject  15,  a  mature  first- 
grade  reader,  also  shows  a  distinct  tendency  toward  grouping.  Subject 
21  gives  little  attention  to  the  end  of  the  sentence,  showing  a  smaller 
interval  between  words  45  and  46  than  between  words  44  and  45.  The 
record  of  Subject  181,  the  last  in  the  figure,  exhibits  almost  a  perfectly 
mechanical  process  of  word-calling,  moving  at  the  rate  of  one  word  per 
second.  At  only  one  point  does  he  miss  this  regular  rate.  This 
subject  was  a  I  B  pupil  from  the  public  school.  Certainly  for  him  the 
degree  of  word  fusion  into  thought  units  must  be  exceedingly  small. 
He  furnishes  an  extreme  example  of  the  result  of  a  method  of  teaching 
which  is  primarily  concerned  with  words. 

A  careful  examination  of  the  spot-diagrams  shown  in  the  last  four 
figures  makes  possible  an  objective  analysis  of  rate  of  reading  which  is 
far  more  productive  than  a  simple  statement  of  average  number  of  words 
per  minute.  Rate  of  reading  is  a  complex,  determined  by  many  elements 
which  may  vary  independently.  For  example,  although  two  readers 
may  have  the  same  average  rate,  an  analysis  may  show  that  one  reads 
with  an  excellent  rhythm  except  for  a  few  long  pauses  caused  by  encoun- 
tering words  which  cannot  be  easily  recognized,  while  the  other  reads  with 
no  rhythmic  grouping  at  all,  but  makes  up  for  his  slow  and  mechanical 
expression  by  a  well-developed  habit  of  word-recognition  which  enables 
him  to  avoid  any  long  pauses  caused  by  unfamiliar  words.  Or  from 
the  standpoint  of  eye-movements,  the  same  rate  may  be  produced  by  a 
combination  of  short  fixation  pauses  and  a  narrow  recognition- span  or 
by  a  combination  of  long  fixation  pauses  and  a  wide-recognition  span. 
The  improvement  of  the  rate  in  two  such  cases  would,  however,  require 
exactly  opposite  modes  of  treatment.  Such  records  as  have  been  shown 
in  this  chapter  should  emphasize  the  fact  that  detailed  qualitative 
anah'sis  will  make  possible  a  t>'pe  of  diagnosis  which  can  never  be  secured 
by  a  quantitative  manipulation  of  complex  scores.  If  the  degree  of 
rhythmic  expression  in  oral  reading  can  be  accepted  as  one  index  of  the 
ability  to  group  words  into  meaningful  units,  the  method  just  described 
can  be  appUed  as  a  measure  of  the  degree  of  maturity  of  reading  habits. 

The  present  chapter  has  been  concerned  with  two  outstanding 
facts:  first,  that  groups  taught  by  various  methods  show  decided  con- 
trasts in  the  development  of  the  different  elements  which  make  up  the 
reading  process;  second,  that  even  within  a  given  group  individuals  show 
pronounced  differences  in  both  the  order  of  development  and  the  rate 
of  development  of  the  various  reading  elements. 


DETAILED  ANALYSIS  OF  FIRST-GRADE  READING  103 

As  has  been  pointed  out  in  the  first  part  of  this  chapter,  the  differ- 
ent methods  of  teaching  cannot  be  evaluated  in  terms  of  the  results  in 
the  first  grade.  The  analyses  which  have  been  made  simply  show  what 
are  the  immediate  results  of  the  respective  types  of  teaching.  Since 
all  methods  of  instruction  in  reading  have  for  their  ultimate  goal  the 
attainment  of  mature  reading  habits,  an  analysis  at  any  particular 
stage  will  show  which  elements  have  and  which  have  not  been  developed, 
and  how  far  the  growth  in  each  case  has  progressed. 

The  psychologist  can  state  the  case  to  the  teacher  somewhat  as 
follows:  A  study  of  mature  readers  shows  the  stage  of  development 
toward  which  the  school  is  moving.  Such  a  final  stage  may  be  reached 
by  various  methods.  However,  regardless  of  the  method  used,(certain 
fundamental  habits  must  ultimately  be  developed.  1  It  is  the  function 
of  the  teacher  to  say  when  and  how  rapidly  the  development  can  best 
be  accompHshed.  It  is  the  function  of  !^he  psychologist  to  determine  by 
careful  analysis  what  are  the  fundamental  elements  and  what  is  their 
condition  of  maturity.  If  the  analysis  can  be  carried  far  enough  to 
p.lot  the  normal  growth  curves  under  ordinary  school  conditions,  then 
/  the  teacher  can  use  the  results  of  analysis  very  effectively^/' 

A  case  from  the  present  chapter  may  be  used  for  purposes  of  illustra- 
tion. Out  of  the  group  of  twelve  children  from  the  I  B  grade  of  the 
University  laboratory  school,  five  were  unable  at  the  end  of  the  first 
semester  to  read  accurately  the  modified  "Little  Red  Hen"  story. 
Furthermore,  they  had  not  reached  the  stage  of  development  where 
their  eyes  followed  the  lines  of  print  in  a  careful  manner  while  they 
tried  to  read.  They  had,  however,  developed  a  very  active  concern 
for  the  meaning  of  the  passages  which  they  tried  to  read  and,  in  general, 
when  they  failed  to  read  the  story  properly  they  supplied  a  content  of 
their  own  which  was  meaningful.  On  the  whole,  their  attitude  toward 
reading  was  mature  to  the  point  that  they  recognized  clearly  that  the 
story  had  something  to  tell  and  that  it  was  their  business  to  find  out 
what  it  was.  Their  lack  of  proper  eye-movement  habits  and  their 
inability  to  cope  with  new  words  prohibited  them  from  getting  the 
meaning  accurately;  but  their  attitude  toward  the  process  was  more 
mature.  In  terms  of  the  analogy  of  the  skyscraper,  this  method  evi- 
dently considers  readin^attitude  in  the  same  manner  in  which  the 
contractor  considers  the  steel  structure.  By  its  procedure  this  method 
would  say  that ''a  correct  attitude  toward  reading  is  of  such  great  impor- 
tance that  it  should  be  pushed  a  long  way  toward  maturity,  letting  the 
other  habits  rest  for  the  time  being..JWith  only  the  evidence  which 
has  so  far  been  presented,   the  psychologist  has  no  criticism  of  this 


I04  FUNDAMENTAL  READING  HABITS 

method.  He  can,  however,  say  to  those  using  this  method  that  sooner 
or  later  the  eye-movement  habits  and  the  word-recognition  elements 
must  be  developed  and  that  finally  they  must  become  just  as  mature  as 
the  element  of  reading  attitude. 

The  advocates  of  the  other  method  which  places  first  emphasis 
upon  word  study  could  be  given  the  same  principle.  Habits  of  word 
study  may  be  developed  first,  but  ultimately  a  correct  reading  attitude 
must  also  be  secured.  This  is  not  equivalent  to  saying  that  any  method 
is  as  good  as  any  other.  It  is  simply  stating  that  a  method  cannot  be 
accurately  evaluated  by  a  cross-section  view  at  the  level  of  any  par- 
ticular grade.  In  the  absence  of  sufficient  data  covering  the  entire 
interval  from  the  beginning  stage  to  that  of  maturity,  a  final  evaluation 
is  not  in  order.  What  the  teacher  can  do  is  to  use  the  results  of  analysis 
to  determine  the  stages  of  maturity  in  the  fundamental  elements  of 
reading.  As  a  result  she  will  be  able  to  say  that  in  certain  elements  her 
pupils  are  making  normal  progress;  that  in  other  elements  they  are 
considerably  nearer  the  ultimate  goal  of  maturity  than  is  normally  the 
case  in  that  particular  grade;  while  perhaps  in  still  other  elements  her 
pupils  are  relatively  immature  and  will  need  a  large  amount  of  exercise. 
To  make  the  matter  concrete,  the  teacher  might  raise  such  questions  in 
regard  to  her  method  and  results  as  the  following: 

1.  What  kind  of  an  attitude  toward  reading  do  my  pupils  have? 
Do  they  consider  reading  as  a  process  of  gaining  meaning  or  of  pro- 
nouncing words  ?  When,  according  to  my  method,  should  I  expect  a 
correct  reading  attitude  to  be  attained  ? 

2.  Do  my  pupils'  eyes  follow  the  printed  fines  in  regular  order  as 
they  read  ?  Do  they  depend  upon  their  perception  of  the  words  or  their 
memory  of  the  story  for  their  meaning  ? 

3.  Are  their  habits  of  word-recognition  satisfactory  for  their  stage  of 
development  ?  Are  they  able  to  master  a  new  word  by  the  method  of  pho- 
netic analysis  ?     When,  in  my  method,  should  children  be  able  to  do  this  ? 

4.  Is  the  span  of  recognition  of  my  pupils  developed  up  to  the  aver- 
age for  the  grade  ?  Do  the  pupils  see  words  and  phrases,  or  is  their 
recognition  unit  smaller  than  a  single  word  ?  Do  they  make  many  or 
few  eye-movements  in  reading  a  single  line  ? 

5.  Do  they  have  habits  of  quick  perception  or  are  they  slow  in 
recognition?  Can  they  read  words  from  flash  cards  when  presented 
at  a  rapid  rate  ? 

6.  In  observing  their  eye-movements  can  I  detect  many  backward, 
oscillating  movements,  or  is  there  regularity  of  fixation  along  the  lines  ? 


DETAILED  ANALYSIS  OF  FIRST-GRADE  READING  105 

7.  Do  my  pupils  give  evidence  of  fusing  iheir  words  into  large  units 
of  meaning,  or  do  they  read  in  a  mechanical  word-by-word  manner  ? 
Does  the  rhythm  of  their  oral  expression  display  a  recognition  of  thought 
units  ? 

8.  Does  my  method  provide  any  specific  exercise  for  deficiencies  in 
these  elements  ? 

If  the  application  of  analysis  produces  no  more  immediate  results 
than  the  serious  attempt  to  answer  the  foregoing  questions,  its  value 
will  not  be  negligible. 

While  it  is  evident,  from  the  flexible  adjustments  which  pupils  are 
able  to  make,  that  more  than  one  method  of  teaching  reading  may  succeed 
equally  well  in  developing  mature  reading  habits,  one  would  not  expect 
to  find  a  large  number  of  equally  good  methods.  Certainly  there  can 
be  no  doubt  that  some  methods  are  inferior  and  uneconomical.  In  the 
light  of  present  school  experience  no  one  would  attempt  to  justify  the 
practice  of  using  the  alphabetic  method  of  teaching  reading,  although 
pupils  trained  in  this  r^gjinef  will  eventually  learn  to  read.  As  has 
been  stated,  the  present  investigation  does  not  yield  the  type  of  data 
necessary  for  a  judgment  of  methods,  and  consequently  no  attempt  has 
been  made  to  evaluate  them.  It  should  not  be  inferred  from  this  that 
the  psychologist  is  not  interested  in  methods.  The  problem  of  deter- 
mining which  methods  are  superior  and  which  are  inferior  is  large  and 
significant.  It  cannot  be  solved  except  by  following  particular  groups 
of  pupils  through  the  different  stages  of  growth  toward  maturity.  Its 
solution  will  require  the  combined  efforts  of  the  teacher  and  the  psycholo- 
gist, the  teacher  trying  out  the  various  combinations  of  methods  in 
the  classroom  under  carefully  controlled  conditions,  while  the  psycholo- 
gist furnishes  the  scientific  analysis  of  results  which  will  show  the  degree 
of  progress  which  has  been  made  in  each  of  the  fundamental  elements 
of  reading.  This  is  a  productive  field  for  a  future  co-operative  investiga- 
tion. 

In  chapter  ii  growth  curves  were  presented  showing  the  common 
rate  of  progress  in  certain  fundamental  reading  elements.  In  the  pres- 
ent chapter  it  has  been  shown  how  various  methods  of  teaching  cause 
pupils  to  take  different  directions  in  the  development  of  the  various 
elements.  It  will  be  the  purpose  of  the  following  chapter  to  show  the 
conditions  which  occasionally  result  when  a  pupil  who  starts  on  a  devious, 
rather  than  a  direct,  route  toward  maturity  is  allowed  to  go  off  at  a 
tangent  for  too  long  a  time  before  being  turned  back  toward  the  goal  of 
maturity. 


CHAPTER  IV 

INDIVIDUAL  VARIATIONS  AND  SPECIFIC  TRAINING  IN  READING 
The  growth  curves  which  were  presented  in  chapter  ii  show  that 
throughout  the  elementary  grades  there  is  a  constant  approach  toward 
maturity.  These  curves  are  based  upon  grade  medians  and  therefore 
show  the  general  tendencies  of  fairly  large  groups.  While  the  successive 
grade  medians  indicate  the  nature  of  normal  progress  from  grade  to 
grade,  an  examination  of  the  individual  averages  will  show  in  many 
cases  a  considerable  variation  from  the  general  grade  norm.  The 
nature  of  these  individual  variations  can  be  best  understood  if  they  are 
considered  simply  as  the  logical  outcome  of  the  tendencies  toward  devia- 
tion which  were  apparent  in  the  records  of  the  first-grade  pupils.  The 
curves  of  growth  show  the  route  which  is  most  commonly  taken  in  the 
journey  toward  maturity.  Deviations  from  this  main  line  of  progress  mean 
that  certain  pupils  are  trying  to  reach  the  same  goal  by  following  a  dif- 
ferent road.  Many  of  these  pupils  eventually  are  drawn  back  to  the  main 
line  of  travel.  The  pupils,  if  allowed  to  go  far  enough,  develop  reading 
habits  which  are  so  inconsistent  with  the  demands  of  maturity  that 
special  measures  have  to  be  taken  to  turn  them  in  the  right  direction. 
If  some  special  measures  are  not  taken  these  pupils  ultimately  become 
pathological  cases  and  are  unable  to  meet  the  ordinary  standards  of 
the  school. 

This  report  does  not  consider  the  cases  of  readers  who  are  so  deficient 
as  to  be  classed  as  pathological.  An  elaborate  study  of  school  children 
who  exhibit  these  pathological  tendencies  in  varying  degrees  is  provided 
in  another  monograph'  of  this  series.  It  is  the  aim  of  the  present  chap- 
ter to  present  an  analysis  of  a  number  of  cases,  selected  from  the  different 
school  grades,  in  which  individual  variations  such  as  are  commonly 
found  in  school  will  be  studied,  using  the  data  for  the  entire  group  of 
pupils  as  a  background. 

A  study  of  the  photographic  records  shows  that  an  individual  pupil 
may  vary  from  the  median  rating  of  his  school  grade  in  one,  two,  or  all 
three  of  the  fundamental  characteristics  of  eye-movements.  This  means 
that  one  pupil  may  develop  a  habit  of  using  a  wide  recognition-span 

'  W.  S.  Gray,  Remedial  Cases  in  Reading:  Their  Diagnosis  and  Treatment.  "Sup- 
plementary Educational  Monographs,"  No.  22.  Chicago:  Department  of  Educa- 
tion, University  of  Chicago,  1922. 

106 


INDIVIDUAL  VARIATIONS  AND  SPECIFIC  TRAINING  107 

and,  as  a  consequence,  be  able  to  read  with  a  comparatively  small  num- 
ber of  fixations  per  line.  This  mature  type  of  habit  may,  however,  be 
accompanied  by  a  lack  of  regularity  in  the  order  of  the  fixations  or  by 
a  very  slow  fixation  time.  On  the  other  hand,  another  reader  may  reach 
the  same  level  of  reading  maturity  by  using  habits  of  rapid  recognition 
and  regular  rhythmic  eye-movements,  but  at  the  same  time  having  a 
very  narrow  recognition-span,  making  many  fixations  per  line. 

It  has  frequently  been  assumed  that  some  such  compensating  rela- 
tionship as  this  exists  in  the  majority  of  cases,  and  that  most  often  the 
reader  who  has  a  broad  recognition-span  consumes  a  correspondingly 
greater  amount  of  time  per  fixation.  A  study  of  the  facts  reveals  that 
this  assumption  is  entirely  unfounded.  The  correlation  between  the 
average  number  of  fixations  per  line  and  the  average  duration  of  fixations 
for  the  silent  reading  of  eighty-three  subjects  in  Grades  II  to  VI,  inclusive, 
is  r=  (Pearson) +  .49  ='=•056.  It  must  be  remembered,  however,  that 
during  these  grades  a  large  amount  of  improvement  in  both  elements  is 
occurring.  This  would  have  the  effect  of  causing  the  correlation  co- 
efficient to  be  considerable  higher  than  would  be  the  case  if  the  element 
of  growth  were  ehminated.  An  indication  of  the  influence  of  this  growth 
factor  can  be  seen  from  comparing  the  correlation  for  Grades  II  to  VI 
with  that  for  the  high-school  Juniors  taken  alone.  The  correlation 
between  average  number  of  fixations  per  line  and  average  duration  of 
fixations  for  the  nineteen  subjects  in  the  Junior  class  is  —. 08=1=  .055. 
The  significance  of  this  practically  zero  correlation  is  that  the  two 
elements  are  almost  entirely  independent,  which  means  that  a  wide 
recognition-span  may  be  accompanied  by  a  long,  medium,  or  short 
fixation  time.  It  is  possible,  therefore,  for  a  reader  to  make  normal 
progress  in  one  element  while  the  other  may  be  greatly  under-  or  over- 
developed. A  reader  may  be  equally  mature  in  size  of  recognition-span, 
average  rate  of  recognition,  and  regularity  of  eye-mov-ements  across  the 
printed  lines.  On  the  other  hand,  an  individual  may  exhibit  any  one  of 
nine  possible  combinations  of  maturity  in  these  three  elements  of  read- 
ing. This  provides  for  a  large  degree  of  flexibility  in  meeting  the  varied 
types  of  difficulty  in  reading. 

The  nature  of  the  individual  variations  can  be  presented  more  clearly 
by  means  of  a  diagram.  In  Figure  19  the  score  for  each  of  the  three 
characteristics  of  eye-movements  is  given  for  the  individual  pupils  in 
the  sixth  grade.  The  numbers  along  the  base  line  of  the  figure  indicate 
the  subject  number  of  each  pupil.  The  vertical  axis  gives  a  numerical 
scale  which  applied  to  line  a  indicates  average  number  of  fixations  per 


io8 


FUNDAMENTAL  READING  HABITS 


line;  when  applied  to  line  b  indicates  average  duration  of  fixation 
pauses;  and  when  applied  to  line  c  indicates  average  number  of  regres- 
sive movements  per  line.  The  averages  for  each  pupil  are  shown  directly 
above  the  individual  subject  numbers.  For  example,  Subject  103  made 
an  average  of  10. i  fixations  per  line,  an  average  of  6.1  twenty-fifths  of 
a  second  per  fixation  pause,  and  an  average  of  3.1  regressive  movements 
per  line.  The  next  sulDJect,  Number  104,  made  an  average  of  8.8  fixa- 
tions per  line,  an  average  of  5.4  twenty-fiiths  of  a  second  per  fixation, 
and  an  average  of  1.9  regressive  movements  per  line.     The  cases  in 


103    104    94     92     »7     97    100    99     9»  102    95     91     80     »s    «9    loi    90     90    93 

Fig.  19. — Individual  variation  from  medians  for  eye-movements  in  Grade  VI. 
Individual  subjects  shown  on  horizontal  axis;  units  on  vertical  axis  for  curve  a  repre- 
sent average  number  of  fixations  per  line,  for  curve  b  average  duration  of  fixation 
pauses,  for  curve  c  average  number  of  regressive  movements  per  line. 


Figure  ig  are  arranged  according  to  decrease  in  average  number  of  fixa- 
tions per  line,  as  shown  by  the  descending  of  curve  a.  The  significant 
fact  in  the  figure  is  that  the  average  duration  of  the  fixations  and  the 
average  number  of  regressive  movements  per  line  show  a  large  degree 
of  independence  in  their  relationship  to  average  number  of  fixations  per 
line.  The  grade  medians  for  this  group  show  that  the  norms  are  7.3 
fixations  per  line,  5.9  twenty-fifths  of  a  second  per  fixation,  and  1.6 
regressive  movements  per  line.  The  pupil  who  comes  nearest  to  these 
norms  is  Subject  102,  whose  averages  are  respectively  7.3,  6.2,  and  1.5. 
While  this  subject  most  nearly  represents  the  central  tendency  of  the 


INDIVIDUAL  VARIATIONS  AND  SPECIFIC  TRAINING 


109 


group,  the  entire  group  shows  a  great  variety  of  combinations  of  the 
three  characteristics  of  eye-movements.  Subject  95  varies  only  slightly 
from  the  group  median  for  average  number  of  fixations  per  line,  but 
shows  a  larger  deviation  in  respect  to  average  duration  of  fixations. 
Subject  93  has  a  much  wider  recognition-span  than  the  median  for  the 
group,  making  only  5.7  fixations  per  line;  but  his  average  fixation  time 
is  much  longer  than  the  grade  median,  while  in  number  of  regressive 
movements  he  is  more  mature  than  the  median  pupil  in  the  grade. 

The  scores  of  the  different  individuals  plotted  in  Figure  19  indicate 
that  there  are  a  variety  of  possible  adjustments  by  which  a  pupil  may 
meet  the  demands  of  reading.  The  various  elements  which  enter  into 
the  reading  process  may  be  developed  in  a  very  unequal  manner. 

In  order  to  illustrate  the  significance  of  variation  in  any  of  these 
three  elements  of  eye-movements,  a  number  of  individual  cases  will  be 
studied  in  greater  detail.  The  eye-movement  averages  of  these  pupils 
will  be  compared  with  the  medians  in  the  same  elements  for  the  corre- 
sponding school  grades.  Illustrative  cases  will  be  drawn  from  the  second, 
third,  fourth,  and  fifth  grades  of  the  elementary  school,  from  the  high- 
school  Sophomore  class,  and  from  a  senior  college  group. 

Table  XVII  gives  the  medians  of  the  average  number  of  fixations 
per  line,  the  average  duration  of  fixations,  and  the  average  number  of 


TABLE  XVII 

Grade  Medians  for  Eye-Movements  in  Silent  Reading 


IB 

lA 

II 

III 

IV 

v 

VI 

VII 

F 

So 

J 

Se 

Col 

Average  number  of 
fixations  per  line 

18.6 

iS-5 

10.7 

8.9 

7-Z 

6.9 

7-3 

6.8 

7.2 

5.8 

5-5 

6.4 

S-9 

Average    duration 
of  fixations 

16.5 

10.8 

Q.I 

7-9 

6.7 

6.3 

5-9 

6.0 

6.1 

6.2 

5-6 

6.2 

6.3 

Average  number  of 
regressive  move- 
ments per  line .  . 

5-1 

4.0 

2.3 

1.8 

1-4 

1-3 

1.6 

1-5 

I.O 

0.7 

0.7 

0.7 

0-5 

regressive  movements  per  line  for  silent  reading  in  each  school  grade. 
These  data  are  compiled  from  the  medians  given  in  Tables  III,  IV,  and 
V.  The  table  should  be  read  as  follows:  The  median  number  of  fixa- 
tions per  line  in  Grade  IB  is  18.6;  in  Grade  I  A  it  is  15.5;  in  the  second 
grade  10.7,  etc.  The  medians  for  average  fixation  time  and  average 
number  of  regressive  movements  per  line  should  be  read  in  the  same 
manner. 


no  FUNDAMENTAL  READING  HABITS 

Since  the  majority  of  subjects  in  this  investigation  were  chosen 
from  the  University  of  Chicago  laboratory  schools,  the  growth  curves 
represented  by  these  data  probably  show  somewhat  higher  medians  than 
would  be  expected  from  average  public  schools.  An  indication  of  the 
amount  of  difference  which  might  exist  may  be  gained  from  a  comparison 
of  a  group  of  ten  first-grade  subjects  from  the  public  school  with  a  group 
of  eleven  first-grade  children  from  the  University  school.  The  medians 
for  the  public-school  group  and  the  University-school  group,  respectively, 
are  as  follows:  for  average  number  of  fixations  per  line  18.5  and  17.0; 
for  average  duration  of  fixations  14.2  and  11. 5;  and  for  average  number 
of  regressive  movements  per  line  4.8  and  4.5.  The  difference  which 
exists  shows  that,  at  least  on  the  first-grade  level,  the  growth  curves 
would  not  need  to  be  greatly  modified  to  be  used  for  comparison  with 
pupils  from  public  schools.  A  comparison  of  a  group  of  public  high- 
school  pupils  with  a  similar  selection  from  the  University  High  School, 
shows  little  difference  in  the  development  of  these  elements  of  reading. 
While  the  writer  does  not  urge  the  acceptance  and  use  of  the  grade 
medians  from  this  investigation  for  finally  determined  "standards"  of 
eye-movements,  nevertheless  these  medians  will  be  serviceable  as  a 
basis  of  comparison  in  the  analysis  of  individual  cases.  The  shape  of 
the  growth  curves,  as  well  as  the  nature  of  the  distributions  at  most  of 
the  grades,  would  indicate  that  the  general  characteristics  of  curves  of 
growth  based  upon  a  larger  number  of  cases  would  not  be  greatly  differ- 
ent. With  this  understanding  of  the  medians  in  Table  XVTT,  compari- 
sons will  be  made  with  a  number  of  individual  cases. 

ANALYSIS    OF   ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL   CASES 

Second-grade  subjects. — Three  cases  have  been  selected  from  the 
second  grade  to  show  the  variation  in  the  development  of  different  read- 
ing elements  at  this  level.  These  subjects  illustrate  three  types  of  com- 
bination of  eye-movement  habits.  Table  XVIII  makes  possible  a  ready 
comparison  of  their  records  with  the  second-grade  medians. 

The  first  pupil  to  be  used  for  comparison.  Subject  38,  is  a  second- 
grade  boy  with  immature  reading  habits.  A  section  of  his  eye-movement 
record  for  silent  reading  is  shown  in  Plate  XXVI.  This  subject  makes  an 
average  of  20.5  fixations  per  line,  while  the  median  for  his  grade 
is  10.7  fixations.  In  this  characteristic,  therefore,  the  pupil  is  very 
much  below  normal.  Since  the  principal  cause  of  a  large  number  of 
fixations  per  line  is  the  existence  of  a  narrow  recognition-span,  the 
photographic  record  shows  at  once  that  this  subject's  immaturity  in 


INDIVIDUAL  VARIATIONS  AND  SPECIFIC  TRAINING 


reading  is  at  least  partly  due  to  lack  of  development  in  this  element. 
The  record  in  Plate  XXVT  also  shows  a  very  great  irregularity  in  the 
reading  of  part  of  the  lines.  For  example,  the  first  line  was  read  with 
8  fixations  while  the  fifth  line  required  39.  The  fact  that  one  line  could 
be  read  with  8  fixations  is  clear  evidence  that  this  subject's  maximum  or 
absolute  recognition-span  is  considerably  wider  than  the  span  which  he 
habitually  uses.  The  average  number  of  fixations  per  line  is  an  index 
of  the  normally  used  recognition  unit,  rather  than  of  the  maximum  or 
absolute  unit.  It  should  be  remembered  that  tachistoscopic  experi- 
ments generally  measure  the  maximum  span;  and  that  comparisons 
of  the  recognition  units  in  reading  as  measured  by  average  number  of 
fixations  per  line  with  the  average  perception  span  as  determined  with 

TABLE  XVIII 
Comparison  of  Individual  Records  with  Medians,  Grade  II 


Median  for 
Grade  II 

Subject  38 

Subject  37 

Subject  25 

Average  number  of  fixations 
per  line 

10.7 

20.5 

6.1 

10.  I 

Average  duration  of  fixation 
pauses  

9.1 

9-5 

9-3 

12.  2 

Average  number  of   regres- 
sive movements  per  line .  . 

2-3 

8.5 

0.6 

2-3 

the  tachistoscope  are  actually  dealing  with  two  types  of  processes.  The 
element  which  is  of  practical  value  in  the  reading  process  is  the  normally 
used  recognition-span  rather  than  the  maximum,  which  is  determined 
by  a  different  kind  of  measurement.  This  distinction  should  be  kept 
clearly  in  mind  when  exercises  for  developing  a  wider  span  are  proposed. 
The  problem  of  enlarging  the  normally  used  recognition  unit  is  difTerent 
from  the  problem  of  increasing  the  width  of  the  maximum  span.  One 
would  expect  to  find  the  possibilities  in  the  former  case  much  greater 
than  in  the  latter,  since  the  latter  seems  to  be  limited  by  native  capacity, 
which  cannot  be  increased. 

To  return  to  the  record  of  Subject  38,  one  finds  that  he  has  an  average 
duration  per  fixation  of  9.5  twenty-fifths  of  a  second,  while  the  median 
for  his  grade  is  9.1  twenty-fifths.  In  this  respect  the  subject  is  approx- 
imately at  standard.  Since  the  duration  of  a  iixation  is  determined  by 
the  rapidity  of  recognition,  regardless  of  the  size  of  the  unit  perceived, 
it  must  be  concluded  that  this  pupil  recognizes  whatever  unit  of  material 


FUNDAMENTAL  READING  HABITS 


PLATE  XXVI 


Or? 

/(,  4    10 

I 
3  2 

not  di 


4-  5 

night  ^eter  w 


ent  to  bed 


fc  T  8 

early.    ItSyas 

4  II  3Z 


21  fc 


5  10    3  ,1  14     13   12  (5  IT         "<•  I 


iiik     The  b 

5  It         7  <o    5 

3        )t  8 


The  bright  tnoon^^hnne 


:n  a 


the 


9  S    S      3o        IS  «.  i    3 


3        4-  Z  5          1^ 


nit  13  k*  II  I    in  13   %  £2     3 


window. 


Peter 


/+        5  2  5  9 


:cul(l 


Lneci 


6     4 


g    10  II  5  It       4    12  3    1  7      5 


^v||ijjjtiing 

T  2<i 


in  the 


3  T  S   9 


r9om 

X  2  T    3 


3  S3  24  Z2     2 


^.i; 


2    8      lo       I 


II  I?         12  14   !<•     IS 


at  once  he  heard  a  loise.    Peter 


4  X      (.      4 


<.    4       T 


S      W  21  -28    38  31    )2    ■?  H      ai4   It      303+ 


244    3T  t    5      tt  32 


indow. 


wind 


Silent  reading  by  Subject  38,  Grade  II 


INDIVIDUAL  VARIATIONS  AND  SPECIFIC  TRAINING  113 

PLATE  XXVII 
I  a  3  4-      c  5.  _r     % 

One  night  Peter  went  tD  bed  ea:'ly.    It  V^afe 


a    I  4       3         <. 

not  dark.    The  bright  moon 

T        4  4         *> 


5        T  8  a 


shcne  in 


at  tie 


k       1  4         lis 


wincov^.    Peter  could  see 


everything  in  the 


room.    All  dt  once  he  Hieard  a  noise.    Peter 

10  15 

e  3-4  (o  5         'i 

opened  his  ^yes.    He  ssw  tha:  the  room  liad 

T  X  5  T       4 

3  4-5 

gro\m    dark.     Somethi]ig   was    outside    the 


window. 


Tap,  tap,  came  a  noise  at  ;he  window.  "What 

Silent  reading  by  Subject  37,  Grade  II 


114 


FUNDAMENTAL  READING  HABITS 


PLATE  XXVIII 


One  nij^lit 


a     3    5  T  «  3     1  10 


4F 


ter  wert 


to  Ded  e 


II      I  a  r? 


It  WIS 


rr  IS  4  5  10         9    4-        T  1^  ?  T 


not  dark.     Ilhe 

go  3 


bright  moor  sh 


Dne  m 


at  :he 


S        C  19  13  12  24  5 


window.     Peter  ^emld  see  pverytjhing  |  in  j,he 
10  «    <.    ^3 


lOTfth 


rooirs,    All  a:  onc(;  he 


5  l(,  l<o  IT  6 

4  5      >       r  ?  3 


14      13  sCt  I 


hea^d  a  noise.    Pecer 


a       8     4      5 


^A 


II     10 


opene 


3^H«6-£Ji^ 


54a  <.  T  f 


2.     '. 


ei5.    He 

11     X        II     '4 
354. 


saw  that  the 

6  20 


room  had 


growi    dark: — Something    wa 

3       IS         20  \      J 


T  &        8  3. 


outside   the 


2     I 

windoRV. 

M        4 


Silent  reading  by  Subject  25,  Grade  II 


INDIVIDUAL  VARIATIONS  AND  SPECIFIC  TRAINING  115 

his  eye  takes  in,  whether  it  be  a  letter,  word,  or  phrase,  as  rapidly  as 
his  stage  of  maturity  warrants.  Evidently  one  thing  which  he  does 
not  need  is  an  emphasis  upon  speed  in  reading.  If  his  perception  span 
were  widened,  his  rate  of  reading  would  automatically  increase  without 
a  reduction  in  his  average  fixation  time. 

The  data  in  Table  XVIII  show  that  this  subject  makes  an  average 
of  8.5  regressive  movements  per  line  while  the  grade  median  is  2.3  re- 
gressive movements.  In  this  element,  he  exhibits  one  of  his  most  serious 
defects.  His  general  mental  processes  show  evidence  of  confusion.  If 
one  examines  carefully  the  order  of  fixations  in  line  3,  he  is  aware  of  an 
utter  lack  of  orderly  and  rhythmic  progress  across  the  line.  One  of  the 
most  noticeable  defects  in  this  subject's  record  is  the  lack  of  the  habit 
of  swinging  the  eye  from  the  end  of  one  line  back  to  the  very  beginning 
of  the  next.  In  line  3  the  eye  drops  from  the  end  of  line  2  down  to  the 
word  "see"  and  then  moves  in  the  backward  direction  for  fixation 
numbers  2  and  3  until  the  first  word  in  the  line  is  reached.  This  means 
that  when  the  subject  became  confused  he  fell  into  his  regular  forward- 
moving  type  of  habit  while  getting  back  across  the  line  to  the  beginning. 
This  same  tendency  is  clearly  shown  in  7  of  the  16  lines  which  he  read. 
After  he  gets  to  the  first  word  in  line  3  he  makes  8  additional  regressive 
movements  before  he  is  ready  to  pass  on  to  a  similar  process  in  the  next 
line.  The  confusion  of  this  subject  could  not  have  been  produced  solely 
by  the  lack  of  recognition  of  the  simple  words  in  this  paragraph.  It 
must  be  due  rather  to  the  lack  of  ability  to  synthesize  or  fuse  the 
elements  of  the  sentence  into  a  whole.  The  subject  is  evidently  finding 
it  necessary  to  make  a  type  of  minute  analysis  which  breaks  up  the  habits 
of  proceeding  across  the  lines  in  a  regular,  rhythmic  manner.  He  makes 
an  average  of  more  than  three  times  as  many  regressive  movements 
per  line  as  the  median  pupil  in  his  grade. 

To  sum  up  Subject  38,  it  is  clear  that  in  speed  of  recognition,  as 
evidenced  by  the  average  duration  of  his  fixations,  his  record  is  practically 
normal.  However,  in  width  of  recognition-span  and  in  regularity  of 
fixation  pauses  he  is  so  clearly  deficient  that  it  would  seem  advisable  to 
apply  a  series  of  specific  training  exercises  for  the  development  of  these 
elements.  In  his  journey  toward  maturity  this  subject  has  departed 
so  far  from  the  path  of  normal  progress  that  his  general  improvement  in 
reading  can  go  little  farther  until  certain  elements  are  brought  back  into 
line. 

The  next  case  to  be  presented.  Subject  37,  is  a  pupil  from  the  same 
school  grade  but  with  much  more  mature  reading  habits  than  those  of 


Ii6  FUNDAMENT.\L  READING  HABITS 

the  pupil  just  described.  The  first  paragraph  from  this  subject's  eye- 
movement  record  is  given  in  Plate  XXVII.  It  shows  at  a  glance  a  very 
regular  and  systematic  set  of  habits. 

Reference  to  Table  XVIII  shows  that  Subject  37  has  an  average 
fixation  time  of  9.3  twenty-fifths  of  a  second,  which  is  approximately 
the  same  as  the  second-grade  median.  However,  her  average  number 
of  fixations  per  line  is  only  6.1  as  compared  with  10.7  which  is  the  grade 
standard.  In  average  number  of  fixations  per  line  this  second-grade 
pupil  makes  a  record  not  surpassed  by  the  median  subject  in  any  grade 
below  the  high  school.  In  respect  to  average  number  of  regressive 
movements  per  line  she  shows  even  more  mature  habits.  Her  record 
shows  an  average  of  0.6  regressive  movements  per  line  as  compared 
with  2.3  which  is  the  norm  for  the  second  grade.  Her  record  in  this 
element  is  not  surpassed  by  any  median  below  the  college  level.  This 
must  be  interpreted  to  mean  that  in  reading  simple  material  of  the  char- 
acter of  this  selection,  this  subject  exhibits  a  recognition-span  and  a 
type  of  rhythmic  eye-control  which  is  far  superior  to  the  median  of  her 
grade.  Although  silent-reading  test  scores  were  not  available  for 
second-grade  subjects,  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  in  the  Gray  oral 
test  this  subject  stood  highest  in  the  grade. 

Subjects  37  and  38  are  in  the  same  reading  class.  A  comparison  of 
their  records  causes  one  to  raise  a  question  in  regard  to  the  value  of 
giving  each  the  same  type  of  reading  work.  Subject  37  has  progressed 
far  beyond  her  school  grade  in  the  elements  of  span  of  recognition  and 
regularity  of  eye-movements  across  the  printed  lines.  In  speed  of 
recognition  she  is  practically  normal.  The  logical  conclusion  would 
be  that  this  subject  has  progressed  far  enough  in  these  elements  for  the 
time  being,  and  that  emphasis  should  be  placed  upon  some  other  type 
of  element  which  mav  be  less  well  developed.  A  broad  reading  expe- 
rience which  would  be  rich  in  content  value  would  probably  come  much 
nearer  meeting  her  needs  than  continued  drill  upon  mechanics. 

A  case  whose  diagnosis  reveals  a  still  different  combination  of  reading 
habits  is  that  of  Subject  25,  who  is  also  in  this  same  second  grade. 
Table  XVIII  shows  that  in  respect  to  average  number  of  fixations  per 
line  and  average  number  of  regressive  movements  this  subject  is  very 
close  to  the  standards  for  his  grade.  In  respect  to  the  average  duration 
of  fixations,  however,  he  is  considerably  below  normal,  taking  ap})roxi- 
mately  ^^2^  per  cent  more  time  per  fixation  than  the  median  pupil  in  the 
second  grade.  His  case  is  practically  the  reverse  of  Subject  38,  the 
first  pupil  described  in  this  chapter.     The  record  of  eye-movements 


IxMDIVIDUAL  VARIATIONS  AND  SPECIFIC  TRAINING  117 

for  Subject  25  is  given  in  Plate  XXVIII.  The  diagnosis  of  this  case, 
as  far  as  eye-movement  habits  are  concerned,  would  indicate  that  only 
in  respect  to  the  length  of  fixations  is  there  notable  variation  from  the 
general  trend  of  the  group.  Here  it  is  evident  that  some  exercises,  per- 
haps in  the  nature  of  modified  flash-cards,  are  needed  to  reduce  the  dura- 
tion of  fixations.  If  his  fixation  time  could  be  reduced  to  average,  the 
subject  would  be  normal  for  his  grade  in  all  three  respects. 

The  three  second-grade  cases  just  described  indicate  the  extent  of 
the  variation  from  the  normal  growth  curves  which  may  result  from  a 
continuation  of  some  of  the  extreme  tendencies  which  are  noticeable  in 
the  first  grade.  Subject  38  shows  a  decided  deviation  from  normal  in 
span  of  recognition  and  regularity  of  progress  across  the  printed  lines, 
this  deviation  being  in  the  nature  of  a  lack  of  development,  while 
Subject  25  is  below  normal  in  average  duration  of  fixation  pauses. 
Although  one  would  not  expect  to  find  a  purely  symmetrical  develop- 
ment in  these  eye-movement  habits  for  all  cases,  it  is  clear  that  a  con- 
spicuous deficiency  in  any  of  these  elements  means  that  sooner  or  later 
the  subject  showing  such  deficiency  must  make  a  considerable  improve- 
ment in  the  direction  of  normal  progress  toward  maturity.  A  study  of 
eye-movements,  therefore,  affords  one  basis  of  diagnosis  for  certain 
elements  of  reading,  while  the  results  of  such  diagnosis  are  suggestive 
of  the  type  of  remedial  work  which  may  at  some  time  be  needed.  Since 
it  is  possible  to  define  in  a  fairly  definite  manner  the  final  goal  of  maturity, 
a  pronounced  deficiency  in  any  of  the  elements  which  are  fundamental 
to  final  maturity  can  be  interpreted  to  indicate  the  desirability  of  certain 
types  of  remedial  exercises.  Unless  the  deficiency  is  very  great  it  may 
be  remedied  by  the  ordinary  work  of  the  class.  However,  in  case  of  a 
very  decided  deficiency  some  specialized  exercises  may  be  required  to 
help  the  pupil  to  bring  a  particular  element  nearer  to  normal.  All  of 
these  cases  furnish  examples  of  the  need  of  detailed  scientific  analysis 
followed  by  specific  teaching. 

Third-grade  subjects. — The  two  subjects  whose  cases  will  be  next 
presented  for  analysis  were  selected  from  the  third  grade.  Their  aver- 
ages, together  with  the  third-grade  standards,  are  shown  in  Table  XIX. 

Subject  52,  whose  eye-movement  record  is  shown  in  Plate  XXIX, 
ranked  next  to  the  lowest  in  his  group  as  measured  by  the  Monroe 
Silent  Reading  Test,  and  about  normal  by  the  Gray  oral  test.  His 
averages  for  the  three  characteristics  of  eye-movements,  as  shown  in 
Table  XIX,  are  below  the  grade  medians  at  every  point,  resembling  the 
second-grade  standards  more  than  those  of  the  third  grade.     He  shows 


ii8 


FUNDAMENTAL  READING  HABITS 


a  general  retardation  in  his  reading  habits.  He  needs  training  which  will 
give  him  a  wider  recognition-span  with  a  shorter  duration  time,  and  in 
addition  a  development  of  the  habit  of  regular  eye-movements  across 
the  lines.  His  record  as  shown  in  Plate  XXIX  gives  evidence  of  mental 
confusion.  At  the  end  of  line  2  his  difl&culty  could  not  have  been  caused 
by  lack  of  word  familiarity  since  the  words  at  that  point  are  all  extremely 
simple.  It  is  clearly  the  lack  of  mental  assimilation  of  the  fused  meaning 
of  the  words  which  causes  the  radical  change  in  his  eye-movements  when 
the  word  "the"  is  reached.  In  line  6  another  confusion  period  occurs, 
the  combination  of  words  "Something  was  outside"  causing  the  diffi- 
culty. In  the  remaining  thirteen  lines  of  this  subject's  record,  which 
are  not  shown  in  the  plate,  there  are  seven  lines  which  contain  confusion 
periods  similar  to  that  shown  in  line  6  of  Plate  XXIX.     The  subject 

TABLE  XIX 
Comparison  of  Individual  Records  with  Medians,  Grade  III 


Median  for 
Grade  III 

Subject  52 

Subject  47 

Average  number  of  fixations 
per  line 

8.9 

II. 6 

6.1 

Average  duration  of  fixation 
pauses 

7-9 

8.8 

6.9 

Average  number  of  regressive 
movements  per  line 

1.8 

3-0 

0.9 

evidently  needs  training  in  reading  more  simple  material  until  he  is  able 
to  eliminate  these  confusion  periods  and  make  regular  progress  across 
the  page. 

Subject  47,  a  pupil  from  the  third  grade,  maintains  a  consistently 
mature  type  of  eye-movement  habits  throughout  her  reading.  Her  eye- 
movement  record  is  shown  in  Plate  XXX.  As  exhibited  in  Table  XIX 
her  averages  and  the  medians  for  the  third  grade  are,  respectively,  for 
average  number  of  fixations  per  line,  6.1  and  8.9;  for  average  duration 
of  fixations,  6.9  and  7.9;  and  for  average  number  of  regressive  move- 
ments, 0.9  and  1.8.  In  each  characteristic  her  habits  are  at  a  higher 
level  than  the  median  for  her  grade.  This  degree  of  mastery  of  these 
fundamental  elements  makes  it  possible  for  her  to  take  in  the  meaning  of 
the  printed  page  in  large  units-,  with  her  attention  primarily  upon  con- 
tent rather  than  upon  the  difficulties  of  the  reading  process.  As  shown 
by  comparison  of  her  averages  wdth  those  in  Table  XVII,  she  is  farther 


INDIVIDUAL  VARIATIOXS  AND  SPECIFIC  TRAINING 


Iig 


advanced  in  span  of  recognition  and  regularity  of  eye-movements  than 
in  her  average  fixation  time,  which  would  suggest  that  the  next  element 
of  these  three  to  be  emphasized  in  her  reading  process  should  be  rate  of 
recognition.  It  would  not  seem  wise  however  to  do  this  until  the  grade 
medians  overtake  her  own  averages,  which  may  never  occur.  An  ex- 
amination of  the  eye-movement  record  of  this  subject,  in  Plate  XXX, 
shows  that  in  reading  the  first  paragraph  not  a  single  regressive  move- 
ment occurred.  This  rhythmic  procedure  is  in  striking  contrast  with 
the  frequent  oscillation  in  the  eye-movements  of  Subject  52,  as  shown 
in  certain  lines  in  Plate  XXIX. 

Fojirth-grade  subjects  — The  records  of  three  subjects  from  the  fourth 
grade  will  be  presented  for  the  purpose  of  illustrating  three  combinations 

TABLE  XX 
Comparison  of  Individual  Records  with  Medians,  Grade  IV 


Median  for 
Grade  IV 

Subject  62 

Subject  60 

Subject  59 

Average  number  of  fixations 
per  line 

7-3 

7-4 

12.5 

10.8 

Average  duration  of  fixation 
pauses 

6.7 

9-3 

6.0 

8.4 

Average   number  of  regres- 
sive movements  per  line .  . 

1-4 

1 .0 

2,-2, 

2-5 

of  development  at  that  growth  stage.  The  medians  for  the  fourth 
grade  and  the  averages  for  each  of  these  subjects  are  shown  in  Table  XX. 
Subject  62,  whose  eye-movements  record  is  shown  in  Plate  XXXI, 
was  ranked  as  a  poor  reader  by  the  Monroe  Silent  Reading  Test,  but  as 
average  for  her  grade  by  the  Gray  oral  test.  A  comparison  of  her 
eye-movement  averages  with  the  medians  for  her  grade  shows  that  she 
is  up  to  normal  in  span  of  recognition,  somewhat  above  average  in 
regularity  of  eye-movements,  but  in  average  duration  of  fixations 
very  much  below  normal.  The  grade  median  for  average  fixation 
time  is  6.7,  while  this  subject's  average  is  9.3.  Previous  investigations 
of  eye-movements  in  reading  have  indicated  that  in  general  long  fixation 
pauses  occur  when  the  subject  is  encountering  thought  diflftculties.  This 
fact  should  be  kept  in  mind  in  interpreting  the  record  of  Subject  62 
Her  long  average  fixation  time  probably  indicates  that  her  difficulty  is 
largely  that  of  comprehension.  The  fact  that  she  ranks  higher  in  the 
Gray  oral  test  than  in  comprehension  in  the  Monroe  Silent  Reading  Test 


FUNDAMENTAL  READING  HABITS 


PLATE  XXIX 


2  3  4-5 


Onevnight  P6ter 


>vent  to  bed  early.    It  v^as 


T  10  3  <t 


3         3 

3  T 


nc 


t  dark.    The  bid^:ht  moon 


bidj 


shone    n  a 


ttte 


3 


whraow.     Peter  could  see  evcrythiig 


ZS  II 
4.  T  g 

in  the 


^  ,  3  +  S  4 

]*oori.    A  1  at  once  he  healrd  a  iioise.    Peter 


5  5  za        !(. 


Z  t  3 


opened  his  eyes.    He  saw  that  the  room  Had 


T  C  S 


a 

4   T     10 

le 


grown    aark.     Sometiii^    wis 

II  »  5  6  4-7-  «4- 


9  14  <,         Id   i 


Mitsiie 

T        fc  5 


the 


2       I 

wi:i 


dow. 


s     <• 


Silent  reading  by  Subject  52,  Grade  III 


INDIVIDUAL  VARIATIONS  AND  SPECIFIC  TRAINING  I2l 


PLATE  XXX 


0|ne  night  Peter  went 


4-  5 

to  bed  tarly. 


It  \^as 


not 


da  "k.    The  brii>ht  moon  shone  in 


at  the 


window.     Peter 


could  see  ever 


4-  S 

•/thing  in  ihe 


)|)m. 


room.    All  at 


once  he  heard 


a  noiss. 


Pete^ 


,  i  3  + 

optned  his  eyes.    He  saw  that  the  room   lad 


grc 


irjk 


wn    dank.     Something;    was    outside 


the 


w  ndow. 


Silent  reading  by  Subject  47,  Grade  III 


122 


FUNDAMENTAL  READING  HABITS 


PLATE  XXXI 


It  S  ^  5  (.  7 

On(i  nignt  Petdr  went  to  bea  earlj.    It  was 


10  * 


not 


I  4^  2  3  SOT 

dark.    The  brigHt  mo(^n  shonle  in  it  the 

,  5  20 


Is     r 

it  Itl 


inp 


winhov/.     Peter  could 


3  4 

see 

8  5 


5  (» 

everything  in  ihe 


I  3         £  d  4 


l.  All^t 


room.    Aii^  cnce  he  he^rd 

%  4  8         3+  12         II 


a  noi^e.     Pet?r 


opened  his  eyes.    He  sav^  that  the  room 


ir 


S         I. 

had 


grDwn    dark. 


Somethiiiir    was    outside    the 


window. 


Silent  reading  by  Subject  62,  Grade  IV 


INDIVIDUAL  VARIATIONS  AND  SPECIFIC  TRAINING  123 


PLATE  XXXII 

I  32.  4  5CT  8  9  10         II 


C'ne  ni 


t  Peter  went  to 


bed 


early.    It 


was 


35  s       s 


7       Z  I  4-       5         J     C  8        10   T  (I  IZ      13     14-      IS 


not 


dark, 


Tlie 


bri 


^:ht  mion 


<»5  4.  IS  10    5  2.        '2 


shonB  in  at 


(i>  Cj  C       II 


the 


a    4- 


3    « 


4-  5  t  8     T  3 


vi'iiiov^.     Feter 


could  see 


every^thing  in 


S      ?  -5  4-  4-5  S 

435  C>i  TSioS 


I.O       II 

tie 

T       4 


rcom.    i'.l 


8  T    4    4 

2        3  4   1 


at  once  He  heari  a 

4-  8       3  3     5 


noise.    Pe:er 


<t      S  n  9       8  10  II      12. 


opened  hi;  eyes.    Hi  saw 


<o  J  4    5 


3       2 


that  tie  roon  had 


4.5  3  T<i  ZC.4- 


I  5  4-  6  T 


gro'vm    dark:     Something 


WIS    outside    the 


r       3  4  4  4-  ST 

I. 


wint3ow. 


i(« 


Silent  reading  by  Subject  60,  Grade  IV 


124  FUNDAMENTAL  READING  HABITS 

would  be  in  accord  with  such  a  diagnosis.  Although  this  subject  will 
eventually  find  it  necessary  to  increase  her  speed  of  recognition,  such  an 
increase  should  come  as  the  result  of  better  habits  of  comprehension. 

Subject  60,  another  fourth-grade  pupil,  exhibits  the  same  type  of 
results  in  respect  to  achievement  scores  on  the  Monroe  and  Gray 
tests  as  the  pupil  who  has  just  been  described.  Plate  XXXII  gives 
the  record  of  her  eye-movements.  This  subject,  however,  has  a  very 
different  combination  of  reading  habits,  as  is  shown  by  the  data  of  Table 
XX.  In  respect  to  average  duration  of  fixations  her  record  is  slightly 
above  the  grade  median.  But  in  respect  to  width  of  recognition-span 
and  regularity  of  fixations  she  is  notably  deficient.  In  number  of 
fixations  per  line,  her  average  is  12.5  while  the  grade  median  is  7.3,  and 
in  number  of  regressive  movements  per  line  her  average  is  ^.t,  while  the 
median  for  her  grade  is  1.4.  The  subject  is  below  second-grade  level  in 
these  two  respects.  She  is  very  mature  in  respect  to  rate  of  recognition 
but  in  span  of  recognition  and  regularity  of  progress  across  the  line  her 
record  indicates  that  special  remedial  work  will  soon  be  needed  unless 
improvement  occurs. 

The  third  case  from  this  grade,  Subject  59,  whose  eye-movement 
record  is  shown  in  Plate  XXXIII,  is  below  standard  in  all  three  char- 
acteristics of  eye-movements.  This  subject  ranks  low  in  both  oral-  and 
silent-reading  tests  and  does  poor  work  in  her  other  school  subjects. 
Her  I.Q.,  as  determined  by  the  Illinois  and  Binet-Simon  intelligence 
tests,  was  96.  The  general  character  of  her  work  would  lead  one  to 
believe  that  she  is  one  of  those  pupils  who  cannot  be  expected  to  reach 
the  class  medians.  Certainly  her  deficiencies  are  general  rather  than 
specialized. 

These  three  subjects  from  the  fourth  grade  have  exhibited  three 
combinations  of  eye-movement  habits.  The  first.  Subject  62,  was 
normal  in  span  of  recognition,  above  normal  in  regularity  of  eye- 
movements,  but  below  the  grade  median  in  average  fixation  time.  The 
second.  Subject  60,  was  above  normal  in  average  fixation  time,  but 
below  normal  in  span  of  recognition  and  regularity  of  eye-movements. 
The  last  pupil.  Subject  59,  was  below  the  grade  medians  in  all  three 
characteristics.  Since  all  three  are  in  the  same  grade,  they  provide 
another  illustration  of  the  need  of  scientific  diagnosis  followed  by  specific 
teaching. 

Fifth-grade  subjects. — Four  records  have  been  selected  from  the  fifth 
grade  to  illustrate  the  fact  that  while  the  growth  curves  show  a  high 
level  of  attainment  on  the  part  of  the  median  pupils  at  this  stage,  there 


INDIVIDUAL  VARIATIONS  AND  SPECIFIC  TRAINING  125 


PLATE  XXXIII 


3  14-  5 


One  nij^hn  Peter  went  to  bed  early,    li  wat 


2<.  545  S 


4  5  4. 


T  8  13 


not  park.    The  pridht  mood  shbne 

e«  s        4  14 


4  10        10 


ir 


a 


the 


H    M  13 

S3  12  4  6         10       T        p5   «      5      lU 


winpov^.     Peter  coi  Id  sea  e\erythirg 


in 


the 


7   5  13         fc        6       8    10       4>      4- 

134  T 


I  a       3 

roorji.    AIL  al 


once  hi  heard  a  noise.    Peter 


noij 


4-  S  4  ST 


opened  his  eyes.    He  saw 


that  the  room  Had 

3  7  10  S       IZ 


5  6        4- 


grpwn    dank.     Something    was    Dutside    the 


T  T         + 


window. 

<.  13 


Silent  reading  by  Subject  59,  Grade  IV 


126 


FUNDAMENTAL  READING  HABITS 


4         fc     I     S  T 


PLATE  XXXIV 

8     2  3  9  lO 


0:w  liglLLPetef^ent  to  bed  early.    It 


was 


iZ 


not  iark.    The  b'ight  moon  shone  in 


at  the 


a  3  +  5  <. 

window.     Petur  couH  se^  everything  in  the 


•Q0fn. 


Z  3 


All  at 


5 

Ret 


onqe  he  he^rd  a  noise.     Peter 

5  4  2  4- 

opened  his  |eyes.    He  s|aw  that  the  room  had 

4  + 

3  4 


growl    dark.     Something    was 


oii:side    the 

4         + 


wi;idow. 


Silent  reading  by  Subject  8o,  Grade  V 


INDIVIDUAL  VARIATIONS  AND  SPECIFIC  TRAINING  127 


PLATE  XXXV 


One  nighp  Peter  went  |o  bed]  early.    It  xyas 

II  b  4 


9  (« 


7    T  9  1  7 

(.5  +        «         T 


not  iaik.    The  bright  moo]i  shon<i  i:i  at  the 


5     557 

Z.  <,      3       3        T  4-  « 


window.     Peter  couli 
>        3 


?  I        4      35 


room. 

5       T 


see  everything  in  the 


3  «  t  10      t         II 


All  at  once  he  heard  a 


opened^his  eyss.    He  saVthit  tWe 


Pe;fe^r 

3  6.  5      7     4-  « 

r3om  hbd 


55  St 

c  5 


gro"  vn 

4.      <•        7 


darlt.     Something   w4s    oiltside    tjhe 

4 


window. 


Silent  reading  by  Subject  85,  Grade  V 


128 


FUNDAMENTAL  READING  HABITS 


are  some  of  the  less  mature  readers  who  have  not  yet  mastered  these 
fundamental  elements  of  reading.  The  data  for  these  four  subjects, 
together  with  the  medians  for  the  fifth  grade,  are  shown  in  Table  XXI. 

TABLE  XXI 
Comparison  of  Individual  Records  with  Medians,  Grade  V 


Median  for 
Grade  V 

Subject  80 

Subject  8s 

Subject  78 

Subject  70 

Average  number  of  fixations  per 
line 

6.9 

6.1 

8.4 

II. 7 

9.6 

Average    duration    of    fixation 
pauses 

6.3 

6.2 

6.5 

6.4 

5-4 

Average  number  of  regressive 
movements  per  line 

1-3 

0.  2 

3-4 

3-2 

2-5 

Subject  80  is  a  mature  fifth-grade  reader,  whose  eye-movement  record 
is  shown  in  Plate  XXXIV.  He  is  superior  to  the  median  pupil  in  his 
grade  in  all  three  of  the  types  of  eye-movements  which  were  measured. 
The  regularity  and  rhythm  of  his  movements  are  particularly  noticeable. 
This  subject's  eye-movement  habits  are  superior  to  those  of  the  median 
high-school  Senior. 

The  record  of  Subject  85  shows  a  marked  contrast  with  that  of  the 
case  just  described.  This  subject,  whose  record  is  shown  in  Plate 
XXXV,  ranked  very  low  in  both  the  Monroe  and  the  Gray  tests.  His 
principal  eye-movement  deficiency  consists  of  a  large  number  of  regres- 
sive movements  and  a  rather  narrow  recognition-span.  His  average 
fixation  time  is  not  far  from  normal  for  his  grade.  The  most  serious 
difficulty  of  this  pupil  is  caused  by  the  lack  of  ability  to  move  across 
the  line  in  regular  order,  the  regularity  of  his  eye-movements  being 
below  second-grade  standard.  This  one  habit  is  sufficiently  immature 
to  cause  poor  reading  regardless  of  any  other  deficiencies  which  the  sub- 
ject may  possess. 

An  example  of  a  pupil  who  is  normal  in  one  of  the  characteristics  of 
eye-movements  but  very  much  below  average  in  the  other  two  is  shown 
by  Subject  78.  He  is  normal  for  his  grade  in  respect  to  average  fixation 
time,  but  in  average  number  of  regressive  movements  he  ranks  a  little 
below  the  second-grade  median.  This  pupil's  eye-movement  record, 
which  is  reproduced  in  Plate  XXXVI,  shows  that  he  not  only  has  a 
very  narrow  recognition-span  but  also  makes  a  large  number  of 
regressive  movements.     In  the  fourth  line  of  his  record  there  is  evidence 


INDIVIDUAL  VARIATIONS  AND  SPECIFIC  TRAIXIXG  129 


PLATE  XXXVI 

T  5  I  4-  U 


'^Helo,"  said 


"t  ello,  Peter,"  said  :he  bii'd 

45  4  i'Z,  X  55  10 

■2.1  3  4-5  7         fc    II    10  8       9        12. 


Peter 


''Wh  3  are  y 


DU 


«•>>  <ii 


I  ain  i.  Bird, 


Peter. 


10  5  14-  (o         4  s       U    1    (o         5     ^      S 

2.       )  3  4  3  II      ki  t        a    3     T  13    « 


[  have  come  to  take  y<)u 


la     5  3 


:he 


iTdon.    I  leard 


7  54-3         35«  IT 


9    13 


•4-        5    14    IZ   t 


;Vour  father  say  ttiat 


54        t 


3  4.5       T    9 


8  ik     IS  17 


bir  i:  cann3t  fly  to  tie 


55  f      5  K       <o  5 


2         3 


4    4 
T     I      8  as 


3  5 


10         M  IZ.  13 


noon,    '^u ;  he  f  argot  about  iaiiy  birqs.    I  im 


2     «  g        5 

5  4 

t  3 


5  <. 


th 


e  ICing  of  the  Fairy  Birds. 


S  (. 


Silent  reading  by  Subject  78,  Grade  V 


I30 


FUNDAMENTAL  READING  HABITS 


PLATE  XXXVn 


9f         4-    Z    \ 


5  5    4       3        T 


(bjid  ]  light  Peterj-^verit  to  bed  (;arly.    It  wa  . 


4  IT  5 


,4  3*5  ji 

npt  dark.    Thte  aijight  moor  shone 


in  at  the 

5  l- 


wi] 


indow.     Peter  cou  d  se(!  every 


:hing  in 


the 


3    S       a      <•       ♦ 


T  II  9  .12        13      10 


roim.    aII  it  o 

I.'  <»'  *  i    s 


ce  he 


heard 

3  <. 


3e.    Pelii 


noiBe.    reter 

3        3     5 


opened  his  eyes.    He|  sajw  th^t  the 


f-     & 


room  had 


\ 


I.    .3  «•  i       +..  8 

ddrk.     Sombiiino^    was 


grbUn 

5     3 


10     1 


3     4    C 


J 


3utsidd   the 


4    + 


V  window. 


Silent  reading  by  Subject  70,  Grade  V 


INDIVIDUAL  VARIATIONS  AND  SPECIFIC  TRAINING  131 

of  some  confusion  when  his  eyes  encountered  the  words  "that  birds." 
A  similar  situation  appears  in  the  following  line  upon  the  word  "but." 
This  pupil  has  by  far  the  poorest  record  of  any  subject  of  the  group 
selected  from  the  fifth  grade.  He  is  badly  in  need  of  specific  exercises 
for  widening  his  recognition-span  and  developing  a  rhythmic  type  of 
eye-movements. 

The  last  case  selected  from  the  fifth-grade  group  is  Subject  70. 
She  ranked  lowest  in  her  group  in  the  silent  reading  comprehension  test. 
Her  fixations  are  very  rapid,  ranking  even  higher  than  the  median  for 
the  college  group,  but  her  recognition-span  is  very  narrow  and  her 
eye-movements  are  irregular.  Her  record,  exhibited  in  Plate  XXXVII, 
shows  an  erratic  type  of  eye-control.  In  the  silent  reading  of  19  lines 
of  the  story  this  subject  made  21  fixations  which  were  3  twenty-fifths 
of  a  second  or  less  in  duration.  It  is  doubtful  whether  any  clear  percep- 
tion can  be  gained  in  such  extremely  short  fixation  pauses.  It  seems 
very  probable  that  one  cause  of  the  many  regressive  movements  is  the 
fact  that  frequently  her  fixation  pauses  are  so  short  that  only  a  blurred 
perception  results.  If  the  serial  order  of  her  fixations  is  noted,  it  will 
be  seen  that  it  is  extremely  irregular,  jerking  back  and  forth  with  appar- 
ently no  system  at  all.  The  reading  of  this  subject  can  best  be  described 
as  erratic  in  type.  The  width  of  her  recognition-span  needs  to  be 
increased,  and  her  progress  across  the  printed  lines  needs  to  become 
more  regular.  An  emphasis  upon  clear  fixations,  even  at  the  possible 
expense  of  speed  at  first,  would  doubtless  help  to  eliminate  some  of  her 
extremely  short  fixation  habits. 

Of  the  fifth-grade  pupils  just  described  the  first  furnishes  an  example 
of  the  high  degree  of  eye-control  possible  by  this  stage  of  development; 
while  the  other  three  cases  exhibit  various  combinations  of  deficiencies. 
The  general  shape  of  the  growth  curves  for  eye-mo vments  suggests  the 
desirability  of  rigidly  checking  up  these  fundamental  reading  habits  at 
the  beginning  of  this  grade,  in  order  that  the  pupil's  attention  may  be 
free  to  attack  his  reading  work  wholly  from  the  standpoint  of  content. 

ANALYSIS   OF   HIGH-SCHOOL   AND   COLLEGE   CASES 

High-school  Sophomores. — ^As  an  example  of  the  reading  of  high- 
school  pupils,  the  records  of  two  subjects  from  the  Sophomore  class  will 
be  presented.  A  comparison  of  the  averages  of  these  pupils  with  the 
grade  medians  is  given  in  Table  XXII. 

The  eye-movement  records  of  these  two  subjects  are  shown  in  Plates 
XXXVIII  and  XXXIX.     Subject  124  has  very  mature  reading  habits, 


132 


FUNDAMENTAL  READING  HABITS 


PLATE  XXXVIII 


•2.  I  3 


Ope  ntgrit  Peter  went  to  bed  early.    It  was 


not 


dark.    The  b:i^ht  moon  shone  in  a:  the 


I  2  3  4 

window.     Peter  could  sve  every thin|^  in  the 


+ 


room.    All  at  once  he  heard  a  noise,     reter 


3 

ise.     r( 


3  2 


opened  his  e^es.    He  saw  that  the  room  had 


3  4 


gro^n    dark.     Something    was    ou;side    the 

T  8  4 


I 

window. 


Silent  reading  by  Subject  1 24,  high-school  Sophomore 


INDIVIDUAL  VARIATIONS  AND  SPIXTFIC  TRAINING  133 


PLATE  XXXIX 


One  night 


2      5     fc 


Petei  went  to  bed 


«,  T 


early.    It 


v^as 


not  d^rk 
"        37 


•«  '°  5  S  5        5  1  -5  33T 

I.         3       .2  4  5 

The  bright  mcon  shoiie  itn  alt  the 


3  S  fc  T 


Windov\     Pet(T 

•94-      4    *        7 

2  I  4       <,        3      5 

room.    All  alt 


could  see  everything 


13  4 

8 

in  the 

T 


once  he  heard  a  noise. 


4      5     5  3  t  fc 


10         8 

Peter 

4    4 


open 


id  his  eyes.    He  S8\/  mat  the  r 


r  5 

-5  £  (o  T         3  I 

ins: 


oom 


had 


T    T  * 


growi    (lark      Someth 


S       13, 

v^aij 


4  T  3  9C<<.44 


Dutside    the 


win  doww 

3  8 

Silent  reading  by  Subject  131,  high-school  Sophomore 


134 


FUNDAMENTAL  READING  HABITS 


particularly  in  respect  to  the  width  of  recognition-span  and  regularity  of 
eye-movements.  Her  average  fixation  time  is  slightly  below  the  median 
for  her  grade.  Subject  131  does  not  exhibit  the  same  degree  of  maturity 
in  these  elements  of  reading.     His  recognition-span  is  very  narrow  and 

TABLE  XXII 

Comparison  of  Individual  Records  with  Medians,  High-School 
Sophomores 


Median  for 
Sophomores 

Subject   124 

Subject  131 

Average  number  of  fixation 
per  line 

5-8 

4.0 

9-4 

Average  duration  of  fLxation 
pauses 

6.2 

6.9 

6.4 

Average  number  of  regressive 
movements  per  line 

0.7 

0.  2 

2.4 

he  makes  an  excessively  large  number  of  regressive  movements  per  line. 
These  pupils  have  reached  a  stage  in  their  school  career  where  large 
demands  are  being  made  on  their  ability  to  read.  Obviously,  Subject 
131  is  at  a  marked  disadvantage  as  compared  with  Subject  124.  The 
bare  process  of  reading  must  be  a  considerable  burden  to  the  former. 

TABLE  XXIII 

Comparison  of  Indi\idual  Records  with  Medians,  College  Seniors 


Median  for 
College 

Subject  17s 

Subject  172         Subject  174 

Average  number  of  fixations 
per  line 

5-9 

4.2 

6.6 

3.6 

Average  duration  of  fixation 
pauses 

6.3 

6.5 

6.0 

8.0 

Average  number  of    regres- 
sive movements  per  line .  . 

0.5 

0.2 

1.6 

0.0 

Adult  college  students. — Three  records  will  be  presented  showing  the 
reading  of  adult  students  at  the  college  level.  Subject  175,  who 
is  a  college  Senior,  made  the  eye-movement  record  which  is  shown  in 
Plate  XL.  The  comparison  of  her  averages  with  the  medians  for  the 
college  group  is  given  in  Table  XXHI.  As  shown  by  the  smaller  number 
of  fixations  per  line  and  fewer  regressive  movements,  she  is  superior  in 


INDIVIDUAL  VARIATIONS  AND  SrECIFIC  TRAINING 


135 


these  reading  habits.  Her  average  fixation  time  is  slightly  greater  than 
that  of  the  median  for  her  group.  The  reading  of  a  college  student  with 
less  mature  habits  is  illustrated  in  the  record  of  Subject  172,  whose  eye- 
movement  record  is  shown  in  Plate  XLI.  In  average  duration  of  fixations 
this  subject  is  somewhat  above  normal,  but  his  recognition-span  is  nar- 
row and  his  eye-movements  are  not  regular.  He  faces  the  heavy  read- 
ing requirements  of  a  college  course  with  an  immature  development  of 
certain  fundamental  elements  of  reading. 

Subject  174,  a  college  Senior  whose  eye-movement  record  appeared 
in  Plate  I,  shows  the  most  mature  reading  habits  of  any  subject  tested. 
Her  eye-movements  are  perfectly  regular  throughout  with  no  regressive 
movements,  while  her  average  number  of  fixations  per  line  is  only  3.6. 
However,  her  average  fixation  time,  8  twenty-fifths  of  a  second,  is  ;^;^ 
per  cent  greater  than  the  median  for  college  students.  The  general 
correlation  between  number  and  duration  of  fixations  would  indicate 
that  it  is  entirely  possible  for  this  subject  to  reduce  her  fixation  time  to 
the  median  of  her  group,  and  thereby  increase  her  speed  of  reading  by 
one-third. 

In  the  material  just  presented,  the  writer  has  attempted  to  point 
out  how  the  grade  medians  for  the  three  fundamental  characteristics 
of  eye-movement  habits  may  be  used  in  the  analysis  of  individual  cases. 


TABLE  XXIV 
Grade  Medians  for  Eye-Movements  in  Oral  Reading 


IB 

lA 

II 

III. 

IV 

V 

VI 

VII 

F 

So 

J    1    Se 

Col 

Average  number  of 
fixations  per  line 

16.0 

14-5 

12.0 

10.4 

10.3 

8.7 

8.9 

8.7 

9.1 

8.3 

8.0 

9-3 

8.4 

Average     duration 
of  fixations 

19.  2 

12.8 

9.8 

10. 1 

7-7 

7.2 

7-3 

7.0 

6.7 

6.6 

7.0 

6.5 

7-5 

Average  number  of 
regressive  move- 
ments per  line.  . 

4-4 

3-1 

2.5 

1.8 

2.0 

1-4 

1-4 

2.0 

1-5 

1-5 

I.I 

^•4 

I.  2 

The  illustrations  have  all  been  drawn  from  silent-reading  records.  Oral- 
reading  medians  may  be  used  in  the  same  manner,  although  in  the  inter- 
pretation the  essential  differences  between  the  oral-  and  silent-reading 
processes  must  be  kept  clearly  in  mind.  To  provide  a  basis  for  com- 
parison, Table  XXIV  is  given,  which  exhibits  the  grade  medians  for  the 
three  types  of  eye-movement  habits  in  oral  reading. 


136 


FUNDAMENTAL  READING  HABITS 


PLATE  XL 


One  light  Peter  went 


to  bed  early.    It  was 


not  dark.    The  bri^rht  moon  s 


lone  in   it  the 


(.       4 


3  4 


window. 


Peter  could  see 


everything  in 


the 


a  s 


room.    All  at 


■3        5 
once  he  h4ard  a  noise.     Peter 


"^        + 


I  Z  3 

opened  his  eyes.    He  saw  that  the  r)om  had 


grpwn    dark.     Something    was    outside    the 


window. 


Silent  reading  by  Subject  175,  college  Senior 


INDIVIDUAL  VARIATIONS  AND  SIMXIFIC  TRAINING  137 


a       I 


PLATE  XLI 

3 


One  night  Peter  wept  to  be 
+     12 


i  early.    It 


5     fe 
v^ss 

T         3 


2  I 


J      S  4-  <i  r  «     3 


not  dark.    The  qri 
8        5 


^ht  m 


3on 


7      |0  64  5 

2  3  4 


shonb  in  a:  :he 
&  4 


window.     Pet^r  could 


3ee  everything  in 


the 


8 


6 

I  4  2        3  6         5  T 

roonu    lAl  si  once  he  htarti  a  noise.     Pdter 


T  473 

2  I  3 


(<>         5 


&     5 


o])ened  his 
9       5 


ayes.    He 


saw  that 

4   5 


the  room 


had 


52  43 


grown    dark.     Son:(ithing 
II  46 

»     2 
winiov^'. 


ws  s    outside    the 

<c         5 


28        3 


Silent  reading  by  Subject  172,  college  Senior 


138  FUNDAMENTAL  READING  HABITS 

The  writer  does  not  mean  to  intimate  that  a  complete  diagnosis  of 
reading  difficulties  can  be  made  upon  the  basis  of  eye-movement  data 
alone.  Every  available  type  of  analysis  should  be  employed.  He  does 
propose,  however,  that  a  complete  diagnosis  cannot  disregard  the  facts 
which  eye-movement  records  reveal,  and  he  further  contends  that  span  of 
recognition,  average  fixation  time,  and  regular,  rhythmic  eye-movements 
are  fundamental  elements  in  the  reading  process. 

When  a  careful  analysis  of  the  reading  process  for  an  individual 
pupil  reveals  one  or  more  specific  deficiencies,  the  logical  conclusion  is 
that  if  these  deficiencies  are  very  pronounced  some  specific  form  of 
treatment  should  follow.  Small  variations  in  the  development  of  the 
different  elements  may  be  expected  and  in  general  may  be  disregarded. 
However,  when  a  pupil  follows  a  deviation  from  the  curve  of  common 
growth  to  the  extent  that  further  progress  in  reading  is  delayed  until  a 
higher  stage  of  maturity  in  the  given  element  is  reached,  it  is  time  to 
provide  some  special  form  of  treatment  for  the  improvement  of  the 
pupil's  reading  in  this  respect.  In  certain  cases  this  specific  treatment 
may  need  to  be  some  purely  formal  or  artificial  exercise,  unlike  anything 
found  in  the  ordinary  reading  assignments. 

There  has  been  some  tendency  in  the  literature  of  reading  methods 
to  question  the  practice  of  using  any  kind  of  an  artificial  device.  There 
is  a  tendency  to  assert  that  no  material  should  be  used  in  school  which 
does  not  have  social  value  or  which  fails  to  meet  the  standards  of  social 
usage  outside  the  school.  Applied  to  reading  this  would  mean  that 
whatever  training  is  needed  should  be  acquired  through  the  use  of 
materials  which  have  a  meaningful  content,  or  which  at  least  have  the 
same  form  as  the  selections  which  the  pupil  is  regularly  expected  to  read. 
No  recognition  is  given  to  the  distinction  between  exercises  applied 
temporarily  for  a  specific  purpose,  and  material  making  up  the  regular 
content  of  a  course  in  reading. 

SPECIFIC   TRAINING   EXERCISES 

The  use  of  specific  exercises  for  remedial  work  is  recommended  even 
though  such  materials  be  largely  artificial  in  character.  Inherently 
there  seems  to  be  no  legitimate  argument  against  the  practice.  This 
proposal  may  be  illustrated  by  an  analogy.  Medical  science  has  dis- 
covered that  certain  individuals  Suffer  from  a  severe  mental  deteriora- 
tion due  to  lack  of  secretion  of  the  thyroid  gland.  Normally  the  human 
system  generates  the  amount  of  thyroid  secretion  which  is  required  from 
the  nourishment  obtained  from  ordinary  foods.     In  the  cases  mentioned, 


INDIVIDUAL  VARIATIONS  AND  SPECIFIC  TRAINING  139 

however,  the  deficiency  is  remedied  not  by  taking  greater  cjuanlities  of 
ordinary  food,  but  by  the  application  in  an  entirely  artificial  manner 
of  an  extract  of  thyroid  taken  from  the  glands  of  sheep.  A  specific 
deficiency  is  treated  by  the  application  of  a  specific,  but  artificial,  remedy. 
Thyroid  extract  is  not  included  as  one  of  the  elements  in  an  ordinary 
diet. 

In  exactly  the  same  manner  certain  children  are  backward  in  read- 
ing because  of  lack  of  development  in  some  specific  element,  perhaps 
in  span  of  recognition.  The  scientific  method  of  attack  is  not  to  apply 
more  and  more  of  the  general  reading  diet,  but  rather,  after  a  careful 
diagnosis  of  the  case,  to  prescribe  a  specific  remedy  for  the  defect.  If 
the  treatment  provides  a  specific  remedy  it  is  a  matter  of  secondary 
importance  whether  it  be  artificial  or  natural  in  character.  No  one 
questions  the  artificial  administration  of  thyroid  extract,  even  though 
it  must  be  continued  as  a  permanent  treatment.  There  are  even  less 
grounds  for  objection  to  the  temporary  use  of  specific  exercises  in  reading. 

One  type  of  remedy  which  has  frequently  been  tried  in  reading  is 
the  use  of  short-exposure  exercises.  Where  this  method  has  been  applied 
at  the  proper  stage  of  development  improvement  has  usually  occurred. 
The  principal  difficulties  which  have  been  encountered  seem  to  have 
been  due  either  to  lack  of  application  of  the  exercises  at  the  proper 
stage  of  development,  or  to  lack  of  a  systematic  and  standardized  method 
of  presenting  the  materials.  ^" 

In  connection  with  the  present  investigation  a  number  of  methods 
of  presenting  specific  remedial  exercises  were  experimentally  tested.  A 
description  of  one  of  these  methods,  together  with  certain  suggestions 
for  its  use,  may  be  of  some  value.  A  desirable  method  of  administer- 
ing remedial  exercises  should  meet  the  following  requirements:  (i)  the 
material  should  be  of  such  a  character  that  it  can  be  presented  to  a  small 
group  as  easily  as  to  an  individual;  (2)  it  should  be  presented  by  some 
device  which  can  be  regulated  automatically  as  to  the  time  of  exposure, 
making  it  possible  to  increase  or  decrease  the  exposure  time  to  the  limits 
of  the  median  fixation  time  for  the  various  school  grades;  (3)  it  should 
be  possible  easily  to  provide  duplicates  of  carefully  graded  series  of 
exercises  for  each  of  the  specific  elements  needing  development ;  (4)  the 
device  for  presenting  such  material  must  be  simple  in  operation  and 
comparatively  low  in  cost. 

The  apparatus  which  was  found  to  meet  these  conditions  most  fully 
consists  of  a  simple  stereopticon  device  which  uses  a  kinetoscope  film. 
The  exercises  to  be  used  are  photographed  upon  a  moving-picture  film, 


140 


FUNDAMENTAL  READING  HABITS 


from  which  duplicates  may  be  made  in  any  desired  quantity.  For 
photographing  such  material  a  specially  modified  camera  was  constructed 
by  means  of  which  five  lines  of  printed  matter  could  be  photographed 
per  inch  of  film.  Since  the  film  can  be  obtained  in  any  desired  length 
it  is  possible  to  adjust  the  amount  of  film  to  the  length  of  the  exercise. 

The  exposure  apparatus  consists  of  a  simple  device  by  means  of 
which  the  film  is  intermittently  moved  forward  at  any  desired  rate,  the 
printed  lines  being  projected  upon  a  screen  either  by  inserting  the 
apparatus  in  front  of  the  condensing  lenses  of  any  ordinary  stereopticon 
lantern,  or  by  using  a  simple  lantern  which  can  be  attached.  The  film 
is  moved  by  means  of  a  clock  mechanism  operated  by  a  weight.  The 
rate  of  exposure  is  regulated  by  adjusting  the  length  of  the  pendulum. 
A  double  escapement  is  provided,  which  makes  possible  a  comparatively 
long  period  of  exposure  with  a  very  short  period  of  movement.  As  a 
final  outcome,  the  units  of  material  are  presented  on  the  screen  in  much 
the  same  manner  as  they  would  appear  if  presented  through  an  ordinary 
moving-picture  camera.  The  size  of  the  unit  and  the  rate  of  exposure 
can  be  absolutely  controlled.  This  accurate  time  control  makes  the 
use  of  such  a  devdce  greatly  superior  to  the  ordinary  flash-card  method, 
where  the  timing  of  the  exposure  is  frequently  inaccurate  and  irregular. 

One  further  possibility  in  the  use  of  the  apparatus  just  described 
should  be  mentioned.  Material  can  be  presented  through  it  as  a  con- 
tinuous story,  but  exposed  a  unit  at  a  time.  These  units  may  be 
either  words  or  phrases  of  any  desired  length.  For  example,  if  a  teacher 
wanted  to  present  to  beginners  a  series  of  short  words  in  sentence  form, 
the  sentence  would  be  printed  and  photographed  as  follows: 


One 


day 


John 


found 


four 


little 


birds. 


If  the  film  upon  which  these  words  are  printed  were  then  moved  upward 
through  the  stereopticon  apparatus  one  unit  at  a  time,  the  words  would 
appear  on  the  screen  singly,  but  one  following  another  in  regular  posi- 


INDIVIDUAL  VARIATIONS  AXD  SPECIFIC  TRAIXIXG  141 

tion  across  the  line.  In  reading  the  words,  therefore,  the  pupil  would 
not  only  be  securing  exercise  in  grasping  a  short  word  at  a  single  eye- 
lixation,  but  he  would  also  be  getting  the  habit  of  moving  his  eyes 
regularly  across  the  line  as  in  ordinary  reading.  By  substituting  phrases 
of  increasing  length  for  the  words,  the  exercises  may  be  extended  to 
meet  the  needs  of  the  more  mature  reader  who  is  deficient  in  some 
particular  element  of  reading. 

In  using  such  materials  as  have  just  been  described  the  purpose  must 
be  kept  clearly  in  mind.  The  object  is  to  provide  a  specific  type  of 
remedial  exercise  for  a  specific  deficiency.  This  is  entirely  different 
from  using  such  exercises  for  regular  reading  work,  a  practice  which 
should  certainly  be  condemned.  The  criticism  of  specific  remedial 
teaching  has  generally  come  from  those  who  confuse  in  their  thinking 
the  purposes  of  the  two  kinds  of  procedure.  Such  exercises  would,  to 
be  sure,  produce  mechanical  habits  of  reading  if  they  were  used  contin- 
uously in  the  regular  work  of  the  school.  The  point  to  be  noted  is  that 
they  are  not  intended  to  be  used  for  regular  reading  work,  but  only  as 
specific  training  exercises  to  correct  the  lack  of  development  in  some 
particular  element.  This  remedial  work  should  probably  be  handled  in 
a  separate  period  as  is  ordinarily  done  in  the  teaching  of  phonics. 

Three  examples  of  the  possible  application  of  such  remedial  exercises 
will  be  given. 

If  the  eye-movement  record  of  a  subject  shows  a  considerably  greater 
number  of  fixations  per  line  than  the  median  for  the  corresponding  school 
grade  it  is  evident  that  this  subject  has  either  a  narrow  span  of  recogni- 
tion or  a  number  of  confusion  periods  in  which  sufficient  eye-fixations 
are  involved  greatly  to  increase  the  average  number  of  fixations  per  line. 
In  the  latter  case  the  specific  remedy  would  include  drill  in  comprehension 
of  simple  materials,  gradually  increasing  both  degree  of  difficulty  and 
rate  of  reading  until  habits  of  confusion  are  eliminated.  In  the  former 
case,  some  specific  exercise  is  needed  for  widening  the  average  span  of 
recognition.  A  suggested  method  of  treatment  would  be  to  exercise 
this  function  with  units  of  material  of  progressively  increasing  length, 
exposed  by  the  apparatus  which  has  been  described,  or  by  flash-cards,  at  a 
rate  equal  to  the  subject's  normal  fixation  time.  If  flash-cards  are 
used  the  speed  of  presentation  should  be  regulated  by  a  metronome  or 
some  simple  pendulum  device  which  can  be  adjusted  to  varying  rates 
of  movement.  The  size  of  the  units  of  material  should  be  gradually 
increased  until  the  subject  is  able  to  recognize  as  wide  a  unit  as  that  of 
the  median  for  his  grade. 


142  FUNDAMENTAL  READING  HABITS 

If  a  subject  shows  a  deficiency  due  to  long  fixation  pauses  a  similar 
suggestion  would  be  made.  In  this  case  material  should  be  presented 
in  units  equal  to  the  subject's  average  recognition-span,  but  exposed  at 
a  progressively  increasing  speed  until  the  subject  has  reached  a  satis- 
factory stage  of  development. 

In  the  third  place,  if  the  difficulty  is  due  to  an  excessive  irregularity 
of  eye-movements,  as  indicated  by  a  large  number  of  fixations  per  line, 
the  suggestion  would  be  to  present  a  paragraph  or  story  by  means  of 
such  an  apparatus  as  has  been  described,  building  up  the  sentences  unit 
by  unit  at  a  gradually  increasing  speed,  but  emphasizing  throughout 
the  development  of  a  regular  and  rhythmic  progression  of  eye-movements 
across  the  line. 

In  answer  to  the  suggestions  which  have  just  been  given  the  teacher 
will  doubtless  raise  the  question.  How  can  we  determine  the  number  or 
duration  of  eye-fixations  without  the  aid  of  an  elaborate  photographic 
apparatus?  How  may  we  know  whether  a  pupil  is  normal  or  below 
normal  in  span  of  recognition,  in  speed  of  recognition,  and  in  regularity 
of  progress  across  the  lines  ? 

In  reply  to  these  questions  the  psychologist  can  say  that  it  is  not 
necessary  for  the  teacher  to  make  the  elaborate  and  detailed  form  of 
analysis  which  is  carried  out  in  the  laboratory.  It  is  the  function  of 
the  laboratory  to  supply  the  type  of  technical  research  which  cannot  be 
attempted  in  the  classroom.  Frequently  the  results  of  experimental 
work  can  be  translated  into  conclusions  which  can  be  applied  without 
the  repetition  of  the  experiments.  For  example,  it  has  been  shown  that 
the  emphasis  on  the  memorizing  of  a  reading  selection  by  pupils  in 
the  I  B  grade  causes  some  of  the  pupils  to  disregard  the  practice  of 
following  the  lines  of  print  with  their  eyes  as  they  attempt  to  read.  This 
indicates  one  result  of  a  method  which,  in  its  early  stages,  develops 
reading  attitude  to  a  higher  level  of  maturity  than  the  various  perceptual 
elements  or  the  element  of  word-recognition.  This  fact  having  been 
discovered,  it  is  not  necessary  for  every  first-grade  teacher  to  photograph 
the  eye-movements  of  her  pupil  in  order  to  determine  it  again.  She  can 
accept  the  laboratory  analysis  and  proceed  in  her  teaching  with  a 
recognition  of  the  fact  that  by  the  early  emphasis  upon  a  certain  reading 
attitude  she  is  simply  carrying  over  to  a  later  stage  the  problem  of 
developing  certain  habits  of  eye-movements. 

However,  for  the  purpose  of  diagnosis  of  reading  difficulties  it  is 
desirable  that  the  teacher  have  at  least  a  rough  idea  of  whether  a  pupil 
makes  few  or  many  fixations  per  line,  whether  the  fixations  are  long  or 


INDIVIDUAL  VARIATIONS  AXD  SPECIIIC  TRAIXIXG  143 

short  in  duration,  and  whether  there  are  few  or  many  regressive 
movements. 

If  a  teacher  will  seriously  undertake  a  few  hours  of  practice  in  observ- 
ing eye-movements  simply  by  watching  closely  the  eyes  of  another 
person  while  reading,  a  great  deal  of  information  can  be  gained.  If 
the  person  who  is  reading  holds  the  book  slightly  above  the  level  of  the 
eye,  and  the  teacher  takes  a  position  just  at  one  side  of  the  book,  she 
will  find  that,  with  the  exercise  of  great  care,  it  will  be  possible  to  get  a 
fairly  accurate  count  of  the  actual  number  of  eye-movements.  The 
movements  which  are  most  difficult  to  observe  are  those  which  are  very 
small  in  extent.  A  device  for  making  these  movements  more  pro- 
nounced would  be  the  enlargement  of  the  type,  which  of  course  would 
increase  the  angle  of  the  eye-movements.  It  has  been  shown  in  previous 
investigations  that  variation  in  size  of  type  causes  only  a  slight  modifica- 
tion in  the  average  number  of  fixations  per  line,  provided  the  number  of 
words  per  line  remains  the  same.  For  present  purposes  this  difference 
can  be  disregarded.  In  order  to  provide  a  sample  of  material  for  use  in 
testing  the  number  of  eye-movements  of  a  subject,  three  paragraphs  of 
the  selection  which  was  used  as  a  basis  for  the  silent-reading  medians  are 
reproduced  in  large  type  in  Plates  XLII-XLIV.  The  pupil  should  hold 
these  paragraphs  12  inches  from  his  eyes  while  he  reads  silently.  It  is 
suggested  that  the  teacher  proceed  as  follows. 

In  the  reading  of  the  first  paragraph  quickly  make  a  tally  mark  for 
each  fixation  of  the  eye  in  the  reading  of  each  line.  It  may  be  easier 
to  count  the  movements  than  the  fixations,  in  which  case  the  teacher 
should  add  one  fixation  to  the  number  of  movements  for  each  line,  since 
in  counting  movements  either  the  first  or  last  fixation  will  not  be  counted. 
When  the  pupil  has  finished  the  paragraph  the  teacher  should  omit  the 
first  and  last  lines  and  then  find  the  average  number  of  fixations  per 
line  for  the  intervening  part  of  the  selection.  If  the  pupil  is  allowed  to 
read  the  paragraph  only  once  the  process  may  be  repeated  on  the  follow- 
ing day,  as  a  check  upon  accuracy  in  counting,  and  if  a  variation  is 
found  an  average  of  the  two  tests  should  be  used.  A  comparison  of  this 
average  with  the  medians  in  Table  XVII  will  indicate  the  pupils  who  vary 
from  the  grade  norms  by  a  considerable  amount.  Since  small  errors  in 
counting  are  likely  to  occur,  slight  variations  from  medians  should  be 
overlooked. 

In  the  reading  of  the  second  paragraph  find  the  total  number  of 
fixations  for  the  entire  paragraph  and  also  the  total  time  required  for 
reading  it.    Multiply  the  number  of  seconds  required  for  reading  the 


144  FUNDAMENTAL  READING  HABITS 

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INDIVIDUAL  \AKIATIO\S   VXD  SPECIFIC  TRAIXIXG  145 


-     o  a»  c«  ^ 

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«  sj  O)  g  03 

^s  ^^  N 


146  FUNDAMENTAL  READING  HABITS 

CQ   o)   <X>   ^ 


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INDIVIDUAL  VARIATIONS  AND  SPECIFIC  TRAINING  147 

entire  paragraph  by  25  in  order  to  reduce  the  time  to  units  of  twenty- 
fifths  of  a  second.  Then  divide  this  total  time  by  the  total  number  of 
fixations,  securing  as  a  result  the  average  duration  of  a  fixation  pause. 
Compare  this  with  the  medians  in  Table  XVII,  disregarding  small 
variations. 

In  reading  the  third  paragraph  count  only  the  backward  or  regressive 
movements  of  the  eye.  This  will  be  more  difficult,  but  with  sufficient 
practice  in  both  counting  and  keeping  tally  a  fairly  accurate  result  can 
be  secured.  Find  the  average  number  of  regressive  movements  per  line, 
after  eliminating  the  first  and  last  lines  of  the  paragraph.  Compare 
this  average  with  the  medians  in  Table  XVII. 

If  a  teacher  is  willing  to  practice  several  hours  before  attempting  to 
use  the  results  of  her  counting  and  will  use  great  care  in  the  observations, 
she  will  be  able  to  secure  results  which  will  amply  justify  the  time  spent. 
Children's  eye-movements  are  somewhat  easier  to  count  than  those  of 
adults,  because  their  fixations  are  longer.  With  a  due  amount  of  prac- 
tice the  teacher  will  also  find  herself  able  to  detect  confusion  periods  in 
the  reading  of  some  of  the  children.  The  proposal  of  this  chapter  is  in 
no  sense  that  the  regular  teaching  of  reading  should  be  made  formal  or 
artificial.  It  is  exactly  the  opposite.  Keep  reading  from  becoming  a 
formal  process  by  treating  specific  deficiencies  in  a  specific  manner  out- 
side of  the  regular  reading  period.  Do  this  by  making  an  analytical 
diagnosis  followed  by  specific  remedial  exercises.  An  intelligent  use  of 
such  a  plan  should  raise  the  general  quality  of  reading  through  the 
direct  development  of  fundamental  habits. 

SUMMARY 

In  chapter  i  of  this  monograph  a  contrast  was  drawn  between 
matyre  and  immature  reading  and  the  characteristics  of  ultimate 
maturity  were  described. 

In  chapter  ii  growth  curves  were  shown  for  certain  fundamental 
elements  in  reading.  These  curves  were  based  upon  the  common 
achievement  of  a  large  group  of  cases,  showing  the  nature  of  normal 
progress  in  reading  under  ordinary  school  conditions.  While  they 
indicated  the  most  common  route  of  travel  toward  the  ultimate  goal  of 
maturity,  they  also  gave  evidence  that  some  pupils  were  following  differ- 
ent routes. 

Chapter  iii  showed  the  effect  of  dififerent  methods  of  teaching  at  the 
first-grade  level.  The  wide  variations  in  the  stage  of  development  of 
different  pupils  in  the  various  elements  of  reading  indicated  that  from 


148  FUNDAMENTAL  READING  HABITS 

the  very  beginning  some  of  the  pupils  were  starting  toward  maturity 
by  a  route  which  deviated  from  the  one  most  commonly  traveled. 

In  the  present  chapter  the  results  of  some  of  these  deviations  were 
shown.  For  those  pupils  who  had  proceeded  too  far  in  directions  which 
did  not  point  toward  ultimate  maturity,  special  analysis  and  remedial 
exercises  were  recommended.  Suggestions  were  given  as  to  possible 
methods  of  applying  analysis  to  clap^sroom  situations. 

Throughout  the  monograph  the  central  trend  of  thought  has  been 
as  follows.  { Determine  by  a  careful  analysis  the  characteristics  of 
maturity.  Find  the  fundamental  elements  in  the  reading  process  and 
study  their  curves  of  growth.  In  the  light  of  these  growth  curves, 
analyze  individual  cases,  and,  where  specific  deficiencies  are  found, 
provide  specific  remedial  teaching  which  will  tend  to  raise  these  funda- 
mental elements  to  the  normal  stage  of  development.  / 

The  writer  has  attempted  to  emphasize  the  fact  that  although 
methods  of  teaching  may  vary,  all  methods  must  ultimately  lead  toward 
maturity  in  reading;  and  that  while  the  fundamental  elements  may  be 
developed  in  different  order  and  at  different  rates,  ultimately  any 
method  must  provide  for  the  deyelapment  of  all  elements  which  are 
really  fundamental. 


INDEX 


Apparatus,  12 
Artificial  devices,  138 
Attitude  toward  reading,  64 
Average  recognition-span,  30 

Beginning  eye-mo\'ements,  73 

Careful  teaching,  6 
Comparison  of  growth  curves,  55 
Confusion  periods,  g,  36 
Contrasts  in  methods  of  teaching,  63 
Correlation  between  recognition-span  and 
fixation-time,  107 

Development  of   fundamental  elements, 

60,  103,  147 
Diagnostic  work,  138 
Dictaphone  records,  69,  88,  92 
Directions  for  reading,  24 
Double  escapement,  140 
Duration  of  fixations,  ^;^ 

Elements  of  reading,  10 
Enlargement  of  type,  q,  143 
Evaluation  of  methods,  104 
Eye-movements'     interpretation    of,    7; 
s)'mptoms  of  maturity,  8 

Film  carriage,  12 

First-grade  pupils,  61 

Fixation  pauses  in  arithmetic  addition,  52 

Flash-cards,  141 

Function  of  laboratory  analysis,  142 

Fundamental  elements,  10,  103 

Gray,  C.  T.,  12 

Gray  Oral  Reading  Paragraphs,  44 

Gray,  W.  S.,  106 

Grow.th  cur\'es,  28 

Head-movement,  6r 
Hypothetical  growth  curv'es,  59 


Immature  reading,  i,  71 

Individual    case    studies,     second-grade 

pupils,    no:     third-grade  pupils,    117; 

fourth-grade   pupils,    119;     fifth-grade 

pupils,    124;    high-school  Sophomores, 

131;   college  students,  134 
Individual  variations  in  reading,  106 
Interpretation  of  growth  cur\-es,  28,  58 
Interpretation  of  meaning,  5 

Kinetoscope  film,  13,  139 
Kymograph  record,  92 

Length  of  lines,  24 

Long  fixation  pauses,  52,  69 

Maturity  in  reading,  i,  58 
Ma-!iimum  recognition-span,  29 
-Medians  for  oral  reading,  135 
Medians  for  silent  reading,  109 
Memory  method,  65 
Methods  of  teaching  reading,  63 
Modified  score  on  Gray  test,  44 
Monroe  Silent  Reading  Test,  50 

Normal  recognition-span,  29 

Observation  of  eye-movements,  143 
Oral  and  silent  reading,  39 

Pathological  cases,  106 
Photographic  method,  7,  11 
Plateau  in  growth  curve,  28 
Pronunciation,  4 

Questions  for  analysis  of  teaching,  104 

Rate  of  reading,  6,  102 
Rate  of  recognition,  30    _ 
Reading  from  memor_\',  66,  72 
Recognition  of  meaning,  4 
Regressive  movements,  ;i^ 
Remedial  methods,  139    _. 
Rhythmic  expression  in  reading,  92 


149 


ISO 


FUND.AJVIENT.^  READING  HABITS 


Selections  read,  13 

Sentence  method,  65 

Short-exposure  apparatus,  140 

Short-exposure  exercises,  139 

Size  of  type,  9 

Span  of  recognition,  25 

Special  tachistoscope,  13 

Specific  training  exercises,  138,  141,  147 

Spot  diagram,  94 

Standardized  tests,  6 

Subjects  used,  13 


Tachistoscope  projector,  140 
Thought-reading  and  word-reading,  92 
Time  unit,  12,  92 
Tuning  fork,  1 1 

Variations  in  first-grade  reading,  75 

Word-analysis  method,  64,  76 
Word-calling  versus  rhythmic  expression, 

Word-recognition,  86 


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